Unit 1 Study tools

Multiple-choice test

Work through it in one sitting, or one topic at a time. Underlined words show their meaning when you hover over or tap them.

This test checks how well you know and understand the topic pages of Unit 1. Each question has four options and one right answer. Some questions ask you to remember a fact, some ask you to explain or compare, and some give a short situation and ask which idea fits it. Every answer comes with a short explanation and a link back to the part of the guide it tests.

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Question 1Before you beginUnderstand The word consciousness has two senses. Rao and Paranjpe (2016) note that mainstream psychology makes "no provision" for one of them. Which one?
Awareness of some object, such as a sound outside or a feeling of tiredness in the body Attention, as studied in laboratory experiments on what people notice first Pure awareness that remains when there is nothing in particular to be aware of The hidden wishes and fears that Freud placed in the unconscious mind

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Answer: C. Some Indian schools speak of consciousnessconsciousnessLiterally: Latin conscire, to know togetherConsciousness is awareness: the fact that we experience anything at all, such as seeing a colour, feeling pain or knowing that we exist.Indian link chit, purusha or atman (pure consciousness), as distinct from chitta and manas (the mind and its contents).Full entry in the glossary as such: a pure awareness with no object. Mainstream psychology has no place for this sense. Option A is tempting, but awareness of something is the sense that mainstream psychology does study, for example in research on attention. Whether consciousness as such exists, and how anyone could study it, is one of the big debates of this course.

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Question 2Before you beginRemember By the dates most historians accept, when were the early UpanishadsUpanishadउपनिषद्Upaniṣadsay: u-puh-ni-shuhdLiterally: sitting down near (a teacher); upa + ni + sadThe Upanishads are philosophical texts at the end of the Vedas. They ask what the self is and how it relates to the whole of reality.Western link Sometimes compared to Plato's dialogues, because they teach through questions and conversation. The key difference: their aim is direct experience of the self, not only a sound argument.Full entry in the glossary, such as the Brihadaranyaka and the Chandogya, composed?
c. 1500 to 1200 BCE c. 700 to 500 BCE c. 300 to 100 BCE 1st to 2nd century CE

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Answer: B. The early Upanishads date from about 700 to 500 BCE. Option A is the date of the Rig Veda, the oldest Indian text, so it is the easiest mix-up. The years 300 to 100 BCE belong to later Upanishads such as the Katha, and the 1st to 2nd century CE is the usual date of the Yoga Sutra.

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Question 3Before you beginUnderstand One course textbook dates Patanjali to the 2nd century BCE and Shankara to 788 to 820 CE. What does the guide advise you to do with dates like these in an exam?
Use only these dates, because the course textbook is the authority in an exam Avoid them, because historians have shown that every traditional date is false Leave out all dates, because the texts were passed on by memory, not in writing Quote them as traditional dates, and give the scholarly estimates beside them

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Answer: D. The claim check says you may quote your textbook, but a good answer says which date is traditional and which is the scholarly estimate. Historians say only "the 8th century" for ShankaraShankaraशङ्करŚaṅkarasay: shuhng-kuh-ruhIndian philosopher of the 8th century CE, the most influential teacher of Advaita Vedanta, which holds that the true self and ultimate reality are one.Full entry in the glossary, and they place the Yoga Sutra of PatanjaliPatanjaliपतञ्जलिPatañjalisay: puh-tuhn-juh-liThe compiler of the Yoga Sutras, a short classical text on training the mind. Most scholars date it to the 1st or 2nd century CE, and no later than the 5th century.Full entry in the glossary in the 1st or 2nd century CE. Option A is tempting, but the textbooks sometimes give a tradition's own dates next to historians' dates without saying which is which.

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Question 4Before you beginRemember Rao (2008) writes that Indian psychology "is not the study of psychology of Indians". What, then, does the word "Indian" name in the phrase "Indian psychology"?
The people to whom the ideas apply The only country where the research may be done The place where the ideas came from The religion that a researcher must follow

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Answer: C. "Indian" names the origin of the ideas, not the people they describe. Rao and Paranjpe compare it with psychoanalysis, which began in Europe but is used everywhere. Option A is the common confusion: research on how Indian people think and feel is the psychology of Indians, and it can use any theory. Rao also notes that Buddhist psychology grew in Sri Lanka, Tibet and Japan as well as in India.

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Question 5Before you beginApply A research team in Assam asks tea-garden workers, in their own language, what they mean when they say they feel "heavy in the heart". The team builds its categories from the workers' answers and does not start from any one school's model of the person. Which of Rao and Paranjpe's four names describes the team's way of working, rather than the people it studies?
Psychology in India Psychology of Indians Indigenous psychology Indian psychology

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Answer: C. Psychology built from a culture's own ideas and problems is indigenous psychologyindigenous psychologyLiterally: Latin indigena, born in a placeIndigenous psychology is psychology that grows from a culture's own ideas, problems and ways of knowing, rather than being imported from elsewhere.Indian link Indian psychology is often called an indigenous psychology, but this is debated. Rao and Paranjpe say Indian psychology carries its own theory, while indigenous psychology is an approach that is neutral about theory.Full entry in the glossary. Rao and Paranjpe call it "theory neutral", because it can be done from any point of view. Option B, psychology of Indians, is also true of the study, but that name describes who is studied, not how the work is done. Option D is tempting, but in Rao and Paranjpe's sense Indian psychology is "theory-loaded": it starts from a model rooted in classical Indian thought, such as Yoga's account of the mind.

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Question 6Before you beginRemember How did Durganand SinhaDurganand SinhaIndian psychologist (1922 to 1998) at Allahabad. He led the call to 'indigenize' psychology in India, so that it fits Indian life and problems.Full entry in the glossary (1965) want psychologists to use Indian thought?
Rebuild from it a separate Indian school of psychology, with its own methods Collect the parallels between Indian texts and Western theories, to show that they agree Set it aside, because only the Western methods of psychology can count as scientific Draw hypotheses from it and test them scientifically, for one universal psychology

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Answer: D. Sinha wanted Indian ideas mined for hypotheses and tested "by the application of scientific methodology". His aim was "a universal psychology", one science for everyone. Option A is the view of Rao, Paranjpe and Cornelissen, who treat Indian psychology as a system of its own. Option B is what Sinha warned against: collecting parallels "would keep us on the fringes".

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Question 7Before you beginUnderstand In K. Ramakrishna Rao's model of the person, how is consciousness related to the mind?
The mind produces consciousness, in the way that the brain produces thought Consciousness is reflected in the mind, as light is reflected in a mirror Consciousness acts on the mind and moves it, as a driver steers a chariot Consciousness and the mind are two names for one thing, as mainstream psychology assumes

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Answer: B. Rao treats the mind as matter of a very fine, "subtle" kind, and consciousness as not physical at all. Consciousness does not act on the mind; it is "reflected" in it, as light is reflected in a mirror (Rao and Paranjpe, 2016, 1.1.3). Option A is the usual view in neuroscience, which Rao rejects: "the brain does not generate consciousness; it simply reflects consciousness" (Rao, 2008, p. 6). Option C borrows the chariot picture, but in Rao's model consciousness does not act on the mind at all. Option D is the mainstream habit of using consciousness to mean the same as mind.

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Question 8Before you beginRemember Ajit Dalal (2014, pp. 33 to 35) describes features that he finds common across all schools relevant to Indian psychology, and the guide counts six. Which of these is one of them?
It takes consciousness as the main subject of study It rejects first-person and second-person methods It studies only the psychology of Indian people It treats individual differences as errors to be averaged out

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Answer: A. Dalal writes that Indian psychology "primarily deals with the inner state of a person, taking consciousness as the primary subject matter of study". The other five features, in his order, are universal in scope, concerned with everyday problems too, spiritual, experiential and applied. Experiential means that knowledge comes from one's own trained experience, checked by a teacher: first-person and second-person methods. Option B is therefore the reverse of his view. Option C contradicts the point that Indian psychology is not the psychology of Indians, and option D describes the experimental tradition of mainstream psychology.

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Question 9Before you beginUnderstand Indian writers often say that mainstream psychology "misses individual differences". Why does the guide call this a half-true criticism?
Indian psychology also pays no attention to how one individual differs from another Experimental psychology treats variation as error, but differential psychology measures it Mainstream psychology studies one person at a time and never works with group averages The Foundations editors argue that individual differences are too small to be worth measuring

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Answer: B. The Foundations editors write that experimental psychology treated individual differences as "errors". But differential psychology, the branch behind intelligence and personality tests, specialises in measuring how people differ. So the criticism fits experimental psychology, not psychology as a whole. The paradigm-debate page adds that Indian psychology keeps "a constant awareness that each individual is ultimately unique", expressed in svabhavasvabhavaस्वभावsvabhāvasay: svuh-bhaa-vuhLiterally: own being; own nature (sva, own + bhāva, being)Svabhava means a person's own nature: the inborn qualities and tendencies that make each individual different from every other.Western link Close to temperament and character. The idea also fits the idiographic approach, which studies one person in depth. The difference: svabhava is often seen as carried over from past lives, and as pointing to one's proper duty.Full entry in the glossary.

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Question 10Before you beginUnderstand Rao and Paranjpe write that Indian psychology aims "well beyond the Western 'repair and rebuild' model". Which goal of Indian psychology does this phrase express?
Predicting when a problem will return, so that it can be controlled early Bringing a troubled person back to the average level of adjustment Raising a person to a higher level of being than the average Describing how many people in a group have the same problem

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Answer: C. The guide calls this goal growth beyond normal: Indian psychology "aims at elevating humans to a higher level of being". The aim is not only to bring a troubled person back to the average, which is option B and is what "repair and rebuild" means. The other two options are two of the four mainstream goals, prediction and description.

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Question 11Before you beginApply A school psychologist in Chennai (an invented example) wants to identify which Class 9 students are likely to drop out next year, so that the school can help them early. Which goal of psychology is this, and how does it relate to the goals of Indian psychology as the guide presents them?
Self-knowledge; it is the first goal of Indian psychology as well as of mainstream psychology Prediction; the Indian goals aim at changing oneself, not at predicting others Description; Indian psychology lists this same goal, in the same words, among its own Liberation; the psychologist is trying to free the students from the cycle of rebirth

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Answer: B. Finding out who is likely to drop out is prediction. Prediction is one of the four mainstream goals, and Watson (1913) put two of them at the centre: "the prediction and control of behavior". The Foundations editors contrast mainstream "changes in others" with Indian psychology's aim of "the mastery and transformation of oneself". Option C is tempting, because finding who is at risk begins with description, but the aim here is to say what will happen next year. Prediction is a sensible goal for a school. It is not among the goals your lectures list for Indian psychology.

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Question 12Before you beginApply In an essay, Rahul (an invented example) writes: "Indian thought was always for everyone, from the pandita to the pamara, so it never shut anyone out." What is the best correction, using the guide?
None is needed, because the epics and the Puranas were performed for villagers everywhere The phrase is wrong only because pamara is the polite word for a Sanskrit scholar Indian thought was only for scholars, and it never reached ordinary people at all Stories did reach ordinary people, but the law books barred Shudras from all Vedic learning

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Answer: D. Rahul is half right. Stories from the epics and the PuranasPuranaपुराणpurāṇasay: pu-raa-nuhLiterally: ancient; of old times (from purā, formerly)The Puranas are long Sanskrit texts of myths, legends and family histories of gods, heroes and saints. Tradition counts eighteen major ones. Most people know them through retelling.Western link Closest to a body of sacred myth and legend in any scripture tradition. The difference: the Puranas mix stories of creation, family histories, law and devotion, and were meant to be performed and retold.Full entry in the glossary reached people who could not read, and poet-saints such as Jnaneshwar carried spiritual teaching into Marathi. But the law books (DharmashastrasDharmashastraधर्मशास्त्रdharmaśāstrasay: dhuhr-muh-shaas-truhLiterally: teaching (śāstra) on dharmaThe Dharmashastras are Sanskrit treatises on dharma: duties, law, ritual and social rules for people of each social group and stage of life. Manu's is the best known.Western link Close to codes of law and ethics that set social roles. The difference: they tie duty to birth group and life stage, and present it as part of a cosmic order.Full entry in the glossary) barred Shudras from learning the Vedas and punished them for even overhearing Vedic chanting (Rao and Paranjpe, 2016, 2.7). The phrase itself also needs care: pamara can mean "a low man" or "a fool", so write "the learned and ordinary people" instead.

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Question 13Ancient formsRemember In the Katha Upanishad's picture of a person as a chariot, what do the reins stand for?
The senses The intellect The self The mind

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Answer: D. The reins are the mind (manasmanasमनस्say: muh-nuhsLiterally: mind; from man-, to thinkManas is the everyday mind. It receives what the senses bring, links it together, and wavers between options. It is a tool of the self, not the self.Western link Close to 'mind' as a processor of sensory input, or to attention and working memory. The key difference: manas is not conscious by itself; the self gives it awareness.Full entry in the glossary). They link the driver to the horses, so that a decision can reach the senses. Option B is the usual mix-up: the intellect (buddhibuddhiबुद्धिsay: bud-dhiLiterally: awakening, understanding; from budh-, to wake, to knowBuddhi is the intellect: the part of the mind that decides, judges and understands. In Sankhya it is the first and finest product of nature.Western link Close to 'intellect' or to the executive functions of decision and judgement. The key difference: in Sankhya, buddhi is material and only seems conscious because it reflects purusha.Full entry in the glossary) is the driver, who decides where to go and holds the reins. The horses are the senses, and the master who rides in the chariot is the self.

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Question 14Ancient formsUnderstand In Bharata's Natyashastra, how is a rasa different from a lasting emotion?
A rasa is the emotion as an audience shares and savours it in art A rasa is a passing emotion, such as anxiety or shame, that comes and goes quickly A rasa is the bodily sign of an emotion, such as tears or trembling, that shows it to others A rasa is a basic emotion that humans share with animals, such as fear or anger

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Answer: A. Bharata's NatyashastraNatyashastraनाट्यशास्त्रNāṭyaśāstrasay: naat-yuh-shaas-truhLiterally: treatise on dramaThe Natyashastra is an ancient book on drama, dance and music, credited to Bharata. It contains an early theory of emotion called rasa.Western link Close to theories of basic emotions and of audience response in drama. The key difference: rasa is a shared, aesthetic emotion that is enjoyed, not a private reaction.Full entry in the glossary names eight lasting emotions (bhavasbhavaभावbhāvasay: bhaa-vuhLiterally: becoming, state of being; feelingAn emotion or feeling. Bharata named eight lasting emotions (sthayi bhava), such as love, sorrow and fear, and thirty-three passing ones.Western link Close to 'emotion' in psychology, and Bharata's eight lasting emotions resemble modern lists of basic emotions. The difference: Bharata studied them mainly to show them on stage.Full entry in the glossary), and each has its own rasarasaरसsay: ruh-suhLiterally: juice, essence, tasteThe emotional flavour that an audience enjoys in a play, poem or dance. In Bharata's theory each of eight basic emotions has its own rasa.Western link Close to theories of aesthetic emotion, and to the question of why tragedy pleases. The key difference: rasa is a shared, impersonal emotion that is savoured, not the private feeling itself.Full entry in the glossary: the emotion as the audience savours it, shared and held at a little distance. That is why sorrow, which hurts in life, can be enjoyed as pathos in the theatre. Option D is tempting, but it describes the lasting emotions themselves, which Bharata treats as shared with animals. Passing emotions and bodily signs are other parts of his theory.

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Question 15Ancient formsUnderstand Why does the guide warn against translating manas simply as "mind" when you read Sankhya, Yoga or Vedanta?
Manas means the true self, which these schools place beyond the mind Manas is a Buddhist term, which these schools never used for the mind In these schools the inner instrument is subtle matter, not conscious by itself Manas means only the physical brain, which these schools treat as the whole mind

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Answer: C. In Western psychology the mind is where awareness happens. In Sankhya, Yoga and VedantaVedantaवेदान्तVedāntasay: vay-daan-tuhLiterally: end of the VedaVedanta is the family of schools based on the Upanishads. They ask how the self (atman) relates to ultimate reality (Brahman).Western link Sometimes compared with idealist philosophy, which holds that mind or spirit is basic. The key difference: Vedanta claims this can be known by direct experience, not only by argument.Full entry in the glossary the inner instrument, which includes manasmanasमनस्say: muh-nuhsLiterally: mind; from man-, to thinkManas is the everyday mind. It receives what the senses bring, links it together, and wavers between options. It is a tool of the self, not the self.Western link Close to 'mind' as a processor of sensory input, or to attention and working memory. The key difference: manas is not conscious by itself; the self gives it awareness.Full entry in the glossary, only seems aware, because a separate consciousness lights it up. Calling manas "the mind" hides this difference. Option A mixes manas up with the self (atmanatmanआत्मन्ātmansay: aat-muhnLiterally: self; in early use also 'breath'Atman means the self: the deepest 'I' behind body and mind. In Vedanta it is pure consciousness and is one with Brahman.Western link Close to 'self' or 'soul'. The key difference: Western psychology studies the self as a set of thoughts and traits; atman is the conscious witness of them.Full entry in the glossary), which these schools place outside the mind altogether.

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Question 16Ancient formsApply In an exam hall, a student reads the first question. She thinks, "This is the topic I failed last time. I am bad at this." Then she judges that it is still wise to attempt it first. In the model of the inner instrument, which function produces the thought that links the question to "me"?
Manas, which sorts and links what the senses report Buddhi, which judges, decides and settles what to do Chitta, the store of impressions from past experience Ahamkara, which relates experience to "I" and to "mine"

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Answer: D. Ahamkaraahamkaraअहंकारahaṃkārasay: uh-huhng-kaa-ruhLiterally: I-maker (aham, I + kāra, maker)Ahamkara is the 'I-maker': the function that makes us feel 'I am this body and mind, and these things are mine'. In daily Hindi it means pride.Western link Often translated 'ego'. Freud's ego manages between drives and reality; ahamkara is the sense of 'I' and 'mine' that wrongly identifies with body and mind.Full entry in the glossary takes what manasmanasमनस्say: muh-nuhsLiterally: mind; from man-, to thinkManas is the everyday mind. It receives what the senses bring, links it together, and wavers between options. It is a tool of the self, not the self.Western link Close to 'mind' as a processor of sensory input, or to attention and working memory. The key difference: manas is not conscious by itself; the self gives it awareness.Full entry in the glossary has sorted and relates it to "me": "I am bad at this." Option B is tempting because she also makes a decision, but her later judgement to attempt the question is the work of buddhibuddhiबुद्धिsay: bud-dhiLiterally: awakening, understanding; from budh-, to wake, to knowBuddhi is the intellect: the part of the mind that decides, judges and understands. In Sankhya it is the first and finest product of nature.Western link Close to 'intellect' or to the executive functions of decision and judgement. The key difference: in Sankhya, buddhi is material and only seems conscious because it reflects purusha.Full entry in the glossary. Option C is tempting because she remembers failing, but remembering is not the step that makes the question about "me". Do not be misled by the everyday Hindi meaning of ahamkara, which is pride. Here it means the basic sense of being a separate self.

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Question 17Ancient formsUnderstand Durganand Sinha (1965) wrote that "if there was any psychology, it was only applied psychology". Which reason for the missing name of psychology does this point to?
Knowledge was sought for liberation, not to explain behaviour for its own sake Sanskrit had no words for mental states, so no one could give the field a name Colonial rulers stopped Indians from studying the mind in their own way Indian thinkers had no interest in the mind, only in ritual and duty

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Answer: A. Sinha's point is about aims. Knowledge was sought mainly for mokshamokshaमोक्षmokṣasay: mok-shuhLiterally: release, freedom; from muc-, to freeMoksha means liberation: final freedom from the cycle of rebirth and from suffering. It is the highest of the four aims of life.Western link Close to 'salvation' in religion, or to 'self-transcendence' in transpersonal psychology. The difference: moksha is freedom through knowledge or insight, not a reward from outside.Full entry in the glossary, freedom from suffering, so ideas about the mind served a practical goal. In Europe, he argues, psychology became a separate science because it wanted to explain and predict for its own sake. Option B is wrong: the Vedas already have about 36 words for mental operations, and the tradition had precise names for the parts of the mind. What it lacked was a name for the whole field.

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Question 18Ancient formsRemember The Mundaka Upanishad divides all knowledge into a higher kind and a lower kind. Where does it place the four Vedas themselves?
In the higher kind, because they are the most sacred texts of all In the lower kind, together with sciences such as grammar and astronomy Outside both kinds, because they count as revealed truth, not knowledge Alongside the knowledge of the self that Krishna praises in the Gita

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Answer: B. The Mundaka places even the four Vedas in apara vidyaapara vidyaअपरा विद्याaparā vidyāsay: uh-puh-raa vid-yaaLiterally: lower knowledgeApara vidya is 'lower knowledge': knowledge of the world gained through the senses, reasoning and study, including the sciences and even the Vedas.Western link Close to empirical and rational knowledge, the kind science works with. The difference: Indian thought sees it as true but limited, not as the only kind of knowledge.Full entry in the glossary, lower knowledge, with the six sciences that support them. Higher knowledge, para vidyapara vidyaपरा विद्याparā vidyāsay: puh-raa vid-yaaLiterally: higher knowledgePara vidya is 'higher knowledge': direct knowledge of ultimate reality. It is gained in deep states of consciousness, not through the senses or reasoning.Western link Close to mystical or transcendent knowledge in the psychology of religion. Mainstream psychology does not accept it as a scientific method; Indian psychologists argue that it can be trained and checked.Full entry in the glossary, is direct knowledge of the self that does not die. Option A is the natural guess, which is why the guide calls this ranking radical. Almost everything modern psychology studies would also count as lower knowledge.

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Question 19Ancient formsApply A poster at a college fair says: "Our ancient sages discovered all of modern psychology thousands of years ago." Which response best matches the guide?
It overstates: there was much psychological thinking, but no modern methods It is true, because the Abhidhamma already lists 52 elements of consciousness It is false, because ancient India had no psychological thinking, only religion It is true of the Buddhist texts, but it is false of the texts of the Hindu schools

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Answer: A. The guide names two opposite mistakes. One is the colonial view that India had "no psychology, only religion", which is option C. The other is the poster's claim, which Rao and Paranjpe (2016) call "sanctimonious chest beating". The honest position is that India had a great deal of psychological thinking, but no separate discipline and no modern methods: no experiments, no data from many people and no tests of rival theories. Option B states a true fact, but a list of mental elements is not modern psychology. Even the AbhidhammaAbhidhammaअभिधम्मsay: uh-bhi-dhuhm-muhLiterally: higher teaching; (teaching) about the dhammaThe Abhidhamma is the part of Buddhist scripture that analyses the mind in detail. It lists the mental states and factors that make up experience.Western link Close to a classification of mental states in cognitive psychology. The key difference: it is built from trained introspection in meditation and aims at ethical change and freedom from suffering.Full entry in the glossary, the closest thing to a separate study of the mind, served liberation.

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Question 20Ancient formsRemember The Hindi word for psychology, manovijnana, has an older meaning. What did mano-vijnana mean in Buddhist philosophy?
Knowledge of the self, the science that the Gita praises The inner sense organ, in the Nyaya account of how perception works The inner instrument as a whole: manas, buddhi and ahamkara Mind-consciousness: the kind of consciousness that knows our thoughts

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Answer: D. In Buddhist philosophy, mano-vijnana is "mind-consciousness". It knows thoughts as the eye knows colours. So the modern name for the Western science reuses an old Buddhist term with a different meaning. Option A describes adhyatma vidyaadhyatma vidyaअध्यात्मविद्याadhyātmavidyāsay: uhdh-yaat-muh vid-yaaLiterally: knowledge concerning the self (adhi + ātman)Adhyatma vidya is the knowledge or science of the inner self. Indian tradition treats it as the most basic of all sciences.Western link Close to a 'spiritual psychology' or a science of consciousness. The difference: mainstream psychology starts from behaviour and the brain; adhyatma vidya starts from the knower.Full entry in the glossary, the phrase from the Gita (10.32), which is a different word with a different aim. The research for the guide could not find who first used manovijnanamanovijnanaमनोविज्ञानmanovijñānasay: muh-no-vig-yaa-nuhLiterally: knowledge (or consciousness) of the mind (manas + vijñāna)Manovijnana is the modern word for psychology in Hindi and many Indian languages. In old Buddhist texts it means 'mind-consciousness', a kind of awareness.Western link Closest Western term: 'psychology'. The word joins 'mind' with 'vijnana', which can mean both 'science' and 'consciousness'.Full entry in the glossary for psychology.

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Question 21Ancient formsApply A software engineer with severe back pain knows that sitting for hours without a break makes it worse. Her physiotherapist has told her so many times. On busy days she still works for six hours without standing up, and in the moment she forgets the advice. Which idea from the Charaka SamhitaCharaka SamhitaचरकसंहिताCarakasaṃhitāsay: chuh-ruh-kuh suhm-hi-taaLiterally: the compendium of CarakaThe Charaka Samhita is the oldest major text of Ayurveda. It covers health, disease and treatment, and it has much to say about the mind.Western link Comparable to the Hippocratic writings of Greek medicine as a founding medical text. It differs in giving a full place to the mind and to ethics in health.Full entry in the glossary fits her best?
A failure of judgement, in which intellect, self-restraint and memory all fail Suffering that comes from outside the person, such as an injury or an accident A simple lack of information, to be cured by giving her more facts about back pain An imbalance of the doshas, to be treated with medicine and nothing else

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Answer: A. Charaka asks why people fall ill when they know how to stay well. His answer is prajnaparadhaprajnaparadhaप्रज्ञापराधprajñāparādhasay: pruhg-yaa-puh-raa-dhuhLiterally: an offence (or failure) of the intellectIn Ayurveda, a failure of judgement: knowing better but acting against it. Charaka treats it as a root cause of illness.Western link Close to ideas in health psychology about poor self-regulation and the gap between knowing and doing. The difference: Charaka treats it as a moral and cognitive failure together.Full entry in the glossary: the intellect fails to tell good from harmful, self-restraint fails to hold back, and memory fails to recall what one has learned. Option C is tempting, but she already has the information. The gap between knowing and doing is exactly Charaka's point, and his cure includes good conduct and a steady mind, not only medicine.

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Question 22Ancient formsRemember Each part of the inner instrument (antahkaranaantahkaranaअन्तःकरणantaḥkaraṇasay: uhn-tuh-kuh-ruh-nuhLiterally: inner instrument (antar + karaṇa)Antahkarana is the 'inner instrument': the mind seen as a set of functions. It usually includes manas (mind), buddhi (intellect) and ahamkara (I-maker).Western link Close to the 'mental apparatus' or the cognitive system in psychology. The key difference: it is an instrument that consciousness uses, not consciousness itself.Full entry in the glossary) has a classical name for its work. Which name belongs to the work of buddhi?
Sankalpa, putting what the senses bring together into a definite idea Abhimana, claiming an experience as "mine" and relating it to "I" Adhyavasaya, settling what a thing is and what to do about it Vikalpa, wavering between alternative ideas and telling them apart

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Answer: C. Buddhibuddhiबुद्धिsay: bud-dhiLiterally: awakening, understanding; from budh-, to wake, to knowBuddhi is the intellect: the part of the mind that decides, judges and understands. In Sankhya it is the first and finest product of nature.Western link Close to 'intellect' or to the executive functions of decision and judgement. The key difference: in Sankhya, buddhi is material and only seems conscious because it reflects purusha.Full entry in the glossary is the step of discrimination or decision, and its work is adhyavasayaadhyavasayaअध्यवसायadhyavasāyasay: uh-dhyuh-vuh-saa-yuhLiterally: ascertainment; settled determinationAdhyavasaya is the work of buddhi: settling what something is and deciding what to do about it. It is the last of the three steps of the inner instrument.Western link Close to judgement and decision-making in cognitive psychology. The difference: buddhi is a kind of subtle matter and is not conscious by itself; it only reflects consciousness.Full entry in the glossary: in Raghavan Iyer's translation of the Sankhya Karika (verse 23), buddhi "is for ascertainment". Sankalpasankalpaसङ्कल्पsaṅkalpasay: suhn-kuhl-puhLiterally: putting together; conception; resolveSankalpa, in the theory of mind, is the work of manas: putting what the senses bring together into a definite idea. In everyday use it also means a firm resolve.Western link Close to integration and differentiation in perception and thinking. The difference: manas does this work without being conscious itself.Full entry in the glossary is the work of manas, the step of coordination, and abhimanaabhimanaअभिमानabhimānasay: uh-bhi-maa-nuhLiterally: self-assertion; the thought "this is mine"; prideAbhimana is the work of ahamkara: claiming experience as "I" and "mine". In everyday Hindi, abhiman also means pride.Western link Close to self-reference and ego-involvement. The difference: Indian schools treat this claiming as a root of attachment and suffering, to be loosened, not strengthened.Full entry in the glossary is the work of ahamkara, the step of appropriation. Vikalpa is tempting because it involves telling things apart, but Advaita pairs it with sankalpa as the work of manas.

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Question 23Becoming a disciplineRemember Books give three starting dates for psychology in India: 1905, 1915 and 1916. What happened in 1916?
Brajendranath Seal drafted the first syllabus and set up a demonstration laboratory N. N. Sengupta came back from Harvard and began teaching at Calcutta The Indian Psychological Association and the Mysore department began Calcutta University set up a separate Department of Experimental Psychology

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Answer: D. 1916 is the year of the first psychology department, headed by N. N. Sengupta, and Dalal and Rao date the start there. 1905 is the year of Seal's syllabus and demonstration laboratory, inside philosophy. 1915 is the year Sengupta came back from Harvard, which is why Indian psychologists held a centenary in 2015. The Indian Psychological Association and the Mysore department came later, in 1924. In an exam, give all three dates and say what each refers to.

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Question 24Becoming a disciplineRemember Seal, Sengupta and Bose kept their interest in Indian thought out of the psychology they taught. Why did this split last, according to Ajit DalalAjit K. DalalIndian psychologist at the University of Allahabad who studied health beliefs and folk healing, and wrote a widely used history chapter on psychology in India.Full entry in the glossary (2014)?
Indian universities banned the teaching of Indian thought in their science departments The Indian texts had already been studied in full, so nothing was left to test The rulers saw no use for psychology, and new departments cut ties with philosophy Freud and Spearman told their Indian students to keep Indian thought out of research

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Answer: C. Dalal gives two reasons. The colonial rulers saw no practical use for psychology, unlike sociology and anthropology. And the philosophy teachers who moved into the new psychology departments cut themselves off from philosophy, because they wanted to look scientific. Dalal calls the result living in "two different worlds without any significant overlap". The other three options are not in the sources. Keep the phrases apart too: "two worlds" is Dalal's, "double life" is the Foundations editors', and "a split in the personality" is Salagame's.

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Question 25Becoming a disciplineUnderstand In the 1960s, a team of psychologists studies how farming families in Bihar decide whether to try a new seed, because the government wants to raise crop yields. Which of Durganand Sinha's four phases does this study fit best?
Pre-Independence Post-Independence expansion Problem-oriented research Indigenization

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Answer: C. The study is chosen because a national problem needs solving. That is problem-oriented research, Sinha's phase of the 1960s. Option B is tempting because the study comes after 1947, but that phase mostly repeated Western topics on Indian samples. Option D goes further: it builds concepts and measures from Indian life. Remember that the phases overlap.

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Question 26Becoming a disciplineApply A researcher in Kerala starts from the Malayalam words that mothers use to praise a child's good conduct. She interviews mothers and builds a questionnaire from their own words. How would the three writers on indigenization name this direction?
From without (Enriquez), indigenization of the exogenous (Durganand Sinha), exogenous (J. B. P. Sinha) From within (Enriquez), indigenization of the exogenous (Durganand Sinha), endogenous (J. B. P. Sinha) From within (Enriquez), internal indigenization (Durganand Sinha), endogenous (J. B. P. Sinha) From without (Enriquez), internal indigenization (Durganand Sinha), exogenous (J. B. P. Sinha)

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Answer: C. The study starts from local concepts and language, so it is indigenizationindigenizationIndigenization is the process of making a discipline fit a local culture, either by building it from local ideas or by adapting imported theories and methods.Indian link no classical term. It is part of modern efforts to renew Indian psychology.Full entry in the glossary from within. Durganand Sinha calls this internal indigenization, and J. B. P. Sinha calls it endogenous. Option B mixes the pairs: "indigenization of the exogenous" is Durganand Sinha's name for adapting an imported theory or test. A memory aid: "endo" means inside and "exo" means outside.

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Question 27Becoming a disciplineApply A thesis lists twenty places where the Bhagavad GitaBhagavad Gitaभगवद्गीताBhagavad Gītāsay: bhuh-guh-vuhd gee-taaLiterally: song of the Blessed LordThe Bhagavad Gita is a 700-verse dialogue inside the Mahabharata. Krishna advises the warrior Arjuna, who is in crisis before a battle.Western link Often read as a counselling text: a person in crisis talks with a guide. Unlike most Western therapy, the guide also gives moral and spiritual teaching.Full entry in the glossary seems to match Western theories, such as the idea that frustration leads to aggression. It does not claim that the Gita is better, and it builds no new hypothesis or study. Which of Sinha's pitfalls of indigenization does it show?
Cultural parallelism Cosmetic indigenization Revivalism Indigenization as a bandwagon

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Answer: A. Listing likenesses without combining them into anything new is cultural parallelism. Rao and Paranjpe (2016) say that finding the frustration-aggression idea in the Gita helps Indian psychology no more than ancient ideas about atoms help modern physics. Option C is tempting, but revivalismrevivalismPraising old ideas because they are old, and rejecting modern science. Durganand Sinha used the word for an uncritical return to ancient Indian texts.Compare Compare: separation in John Berry's model of acculturation, where a group keeps its own culture and rejects the other. Sinha applied Berry's model to systems of knowledge rather than to people.Full entry in the glossary means praising ideas because they are old, and this thesis makes no such claim. Option B means adding a Sanskrit word or a verse to a study that is otherwise entirely Western.

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Question 28Becoming a disciplineRemember When was the Pondicherry Manifesto issued, and what did it ask for?
In 2002; it asked for courses, research, textbooks and fellowships In 2003; it asked for a handbook, a textbook and a sourcebook of Indian psychology In 2006; it set up the Indian Psychology Institute in Pondicherry for research In 2020; it became one part of the National Education Policy on Indian knowledge

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Answer: A. The manifestoPondicherry ManifestoA statement issued by 160 delegates at a conference in Pondicherry in 2002. It called on Indian universities to teach and research Indian psychology, and to write textbooks for it.Full entry in the glossary came from a conference of 160 delegates in Pondicherry in 2002. Its eight recommendations include courses at several levels, priority for research, textbooks and doctoral fellowships. Option B is a double trap. The Handbook of Indian Psychology wrongly dates the manifesto to 2003, and the plan for a handbook, a textbook and a sourcebook came from a later meeting in Visakhapatnam in 2003. Use 2002.

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Question 29Becoming a disciplineUnderstand Dalal (2014) writes that "all knowledge, including that of psychology, is rooted in the prevalent worldview of a community". If this is true, what follows for Western psychology?
It should be rejected and replaced by Indian psychology in every country It is culture-free, so it can be used everywhere without change It too is the psychology of one region, not a culture-free science It holds only inside the laboratory, and not in everyday life

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Answer: C. If all knowledge is rooted in a community's worldview, Western psychology is the psychology of one region, which happens to be the most powerful one. Option A is tempting, but indigenizationindigenizationIndigenization is the process of making a discipline fit a local culture, either by building it from local ideas or by adapting imported theories and methods.Indian link no classical term. It is part of modern efforts to renew Indian psychology.Full entry in the glossary is not the same as rejecting Western psychology. For Sinha it was a way to reach a psychology that is true for all people, by building it from many cultures. Option B is the "culture-free" assumption of the early laboratory, psychoanalytic and testing work, which this idea questions.

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Question 30Becoming a disciplineUnderstand Why does it matter whether Indian psychology is one indigenous psychology or a school of psychology?
If it is a school, its findings apply only to Indians and must be tested in India If it is a school, its claims describe all humans and must be tested as such If it is an indigenous psychology, its claims do not need to be tested at all It does not matter, because the guide treats the two terms as meaning the same

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Answer: B. If Indian psychology is one indigenous psychologyindigenous psychologyLiterally: Latin indigena, born in a placeIndigenous psychology is psychology that grows from a culture's own ideas, problems and ways of knowing, rather than being imported from elsewhere.Indian link Indian psychology is often called an indigenous psychology, but this is debated. Rao and Paranjpe say Indian psychology carries its own theory, while indigenous psychology is an approach that is neutral about theory.Full entry in the glossary, its findings are claims about Indians, to be compared with other cultures. If it is a school, as Rao and Paranjpe argue, it claims to describe all human beings and must be tested as such. Option A reverses the two cases. Option D is wrong because the guide sets out three different positions in this debate.

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Question 31Becoming a disciplineRemember What do the University Grants Commission's 2023 guidelines on Indian Knowledge Systems encourage?
Every student should take IKS courses worth at least half of their total credits Every psychology department should replace its Western courses with IKS courses Every student should pass an examination in Sanskrit before graduating Every student should take IKS courses worth at least five per cent of credits

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Answer: D. The guidelines say that every student "should be encouraged" to take Indian Knowledge SystemsIndian Knowledge SystemsThe name Indian education policy uses, since 2020, for knowledge from Indian traditions, such as mathematics, medicine, philosophy and yoga, to be taught and researched in universities.Full entry in the glossary courses worth at least five per cent of their credits. Option A misreads a second rule: at least half of those IKS credits should relate to the student's main subject. The guidelines also ask that such courses be "based on authentic sources".

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Question 32Becoming a disciplineUnderstand The Foundations editors note that almost all research on yoga and meditation studies the techniques "decontextualized", cut off from the setting that gives them meaning. Which of the six arguments for Indian psychology does this point support most directly?
The shift in psychology toward social and cultural factors since the 1970s The failure of imported Western theories to explain how Indian people behave Etic versus emic: research done from the outside, not the insider's view Globalisation, which brings cultures into closer contact with one another

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Answer: C. The editors call this research "etic, rather than emicemic and eticsay: ee-mik, e-tikLiterally: from the linguistics terms 'phonemic' and 'phonetic'An emic approach studies a culture from the inside, using its own concepts. An etic approach studies it from the outside, using concepts meant to fit all cultures.Indian link studying a darshana on its own terms (emic) versus comparing it with Western psychology (etic).Full entry in the glossary": it is done from an outsider's point of view. That is the second argument. An emic approach would study the practices from the inside, with the concepts of the traditions they come from. The other options are real arguments too, but they are about the discipline's turn to culture, the poor fit of Western theories, and the meeting of cultures.

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Question 33Becoming a disciplineApply A study in Jaipur (an invented example) finds that grandparents name saints, freedom fighters and their own teachers as people they admire, while their grandchildren name only people who are famous today. Durganand Sinha found the same pattern in Allahabad in 1969. If his explanation is right, what else would you expect to find among the grandchildren?
More hesitation over moral questions, and a weaker link with their own past Stronger moral certainty, because present-day heroes give them clear rules to follow More respect for their elders and teachers, because they have few heroes of their own More interest in old religious stories, to make up for the loss of older heroes

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Answer: A. In 1969 SinhaDurganand SinhaIndian psychologist (1922 to 1998) at Allahabad. He led the call to 'indigenize' psychology in India, so that it fits Indian life and problems.Full entry in the glossary compared 300 students, 150 young teachers and 150 older teachers in Allahabad. The young chose their role models from the present day and "very rarely" from "the great personalities of the past", and they suspended judgement on moral questions more often. Sinha (1978) explained both findings as a loss of continuity with the past: "Old values have tumbled and the new are still in a state of flux." So a study that repeats the first finding should also find the second. Option B is tempting, but Sinha found less moral certainty among the young, not more.

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Question 34Becoming a disciplineUnderstand The guide lists six arguments for why psychology needs Indian psychology. Which one argues most directly for Indian psychology as a school of its own, rather than for indigenization in general?
The shift of psychology toward social and cultural factors since the 1970s The failure of imported Western theories to explain the behaviour of Indian people The need for an alternative view of human nature, to meet psychology's goals The insider's view: studying people with the concepts of their own culture

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Answer: C. The sixth argument, that psychology's goals need an alternative approach, is the one that argues most directly for a separate school. Rao and Paranjpe offer Indian psychology as "a viable alternative view of human nature", and Dalal says that "we need both the paradigms". The other options are the first, fifth and second arguments. They show that Western psychology fits Indian life badly, which mainly supports indigenizationindigenizationIndigenization is the process of making a discipline fit a local culture, either by building it from local ideas or by adapting imported theories and methods.Indian link no classical term. It is part of modern efforts to renew Indian psychology.Full entry in the glossary of any kind, including the adapting of Western tests. Durganand Sinha accepted most of these arguments, but he wanted one universal psychology, not a separate Indian school.

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Question 35Philosophy and psychologyUnderstand Many behaviourists assumed that the mind is nothing more than the body at work. Which branch of philosophy does this assumption belong to?
Metaphysics Epistemology Ethics Phenomenology

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Answer: A. The assumption is about what the mind really is. That is a question about what is real, so it belongs to metaphysicsmetaphysicsLiterally: Greek meta ta physika, 'after the Physics' (the books placed after Aristotle's Physics)Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy that asks the most basic questions about reality, such as what exists, what causes what, and what a self is.Indian link darshana, a school's full view of reality.Full entry in the glossary. Option B is tempting because behaviourism also made an epistemological choice: that only observable behaviour is fit for science. That choice is about how we know. The guide's point is that every psychology rests on choices of both kinds, even when it never states them.

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Question 36Philosophy and psychologyUnderstand In 1913 Watson wrote that introspection "forms no essential part" of psychology's methods. What was the main reason for rejecting it?
Introspection was too slow to use in the laboratory with large numbers of people Another scientist cannot check a person's report of their own experience Wundt had already shown that introspection gave no useful results at all Introspection came from religious practice, not from the methods of science

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Answer: B. If two trained observers describe their inner experience differently, there is no public way to decide who is right. WatsonJohn B. WatsonAmerican psychologist (1878 to 1958) who launched behaviourism in 1913. He said psychology should study only behaviour that can be observed, not consciousness.Full entry in the glossary and the behaviourists wanted data that anyone could see and count. Option C is wrong: WundtWilhelm Wundtsay: vil-helm voontGerman scientist (1832 to 1920) who opened a laboratory for psychology at Leipzig in 1879. That date is often used as the start of psychology as a separate science.Full entry in the glossary's own laboratory used controlled self-observation. After Watson, much of American psychology avoided consciousness for about forty years.

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Question 37Philosophy and psychologyRemember According to Durganand Sinha (1965), what started Indian philosophy?
Wonder and curiosity about the world and how it works A wish to explain and predict how people behave A practical need to understand suffering and end it Debates with the philosophers of ancient Greece

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Answer: C. Sinha wrote that Indian philosophy "did not primarily take its rise in wonder or curiosity as it seems to have done in the West". It began "under the pressure of a practical need": to understand suffering (dukkhadukkhaदुक्खsay: duk-khuhLiterally: uneasy, hard to bear (Sanskrit duḥkha: 'bad space'; opposite of sukha)Dukkha means suffering or unsatisfactoriness. In Buddhism, the first noble truth is that life as usually lived is marked by dukkha.Western link Close to 'suffering', 'distress' or 'dissatisfaction' in psychology. The difference: dukkha includes a quiet unease even in pleasant states, because they do not last.Full entry in the glossary) and end it. Option A is what Sinha says of the West. He summed up the practical spirit with a Jaina saying: "Do not live to know, but know to live."

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Question 38Philosophy and psychologyApply Two students study anger. One reads a chapter about anger to pass an exam. The other sits each morning to watch her anger rise and fall, so that she becomes less driven by it. In the tradition's terms, what is the second student doing?
Gathering lower knowledge about the world, as a scientist does Epistemology: asking how anyone can know about anger Sadhana: steady practice in which what you know changes who you are Metaphysics: asking what anger really is, beyond appearances

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Answer: C. Sadhanasadhanaसाधनाsādhanāsay: saa-dhuh-naaLiterally: means of accomplishing; from sādh-, to accomplishSadhana means steady spiritual practice: the daily discipline, such as meditation, prayer or study, that a person follows to grow toward a spiritual goal.Western link Close to 'deliberate practice', or to a structured training programme for the mind. The difference: its aim is spiritual change, not a measurable skill.Full entry in the glossary is steady practice aimed at changing the person. Girishwar Misra (2014) writes that knowledge in this tradition "changes the knower" more than it changes the thing being known. Option A fits the first student, who learns about anger as a chemistry student learns about a substance, without being changed by it. The tradition ranks the second kind of knowledge higher.

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Question 39Philosophy and psychologyUnderstand Rao and Paranjpe write that Indian psychology "is a school of psychology and not a system of philosophy". They also write that "its philosophical preoccupation is its strength". What is the best way to read the two sentences together?
They separate it from philosophy as a discipline, but keep the worldview The authors contradict themselves, so one of the two sentences should be ignored They mean that Indian psychology is, in the end, really philosophy under a new name They mean that only trained philosophers should teach courses in Indian psychology

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Answer: A. Rao and Paranjpe want Indian psychology to observe, test and apply its ideas, as a discipline does. But they keep its worldview, especially the views of Advaita VedantaAdvaita Vedantaअद्वैत वेदान्तAdvaita Vedāntasay: uhd-vai-tuh vay-daan-tuhLiterally: not-two; non-dualAdvaita Vedanta teaches that the true self (atman) and ultimate reality (Brahman) are one. The feeling of being a separate person comes from ignorance.Western link Often called monism. Advaita writers prefer 'non-dualism': reality is not two, but it is not described as one countable thing either.Full entry in the glossary and Sankhya-Yoga about consciousness. Option B is tempting, but the guide says both sentences are meant seriously. An exam answer that explains the tension is stronger than one that quotes only one side.

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Question 40Philosophy and psychologyUnderstand Which of these points supports the case that Indian psychology is not simply religion?
Dalal says it is spiritual, and that spirituality here means faith in higher powers Paranjpe notes that Sankhya is atheistic, and atheists can practise meditation Manickam says that critical questioning of its basic principles is not encouraged It draws on many texts that its followers treat as revealed scripture

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Answer: B. Some Indian schools have no God at all, and meditation and the other yogas are open to atheists. Paranjpe (2014) makes this point about SankhyaSankhyaसांख्यSāṃkhyasay: saang-khyuhLiterally: enumeration, countingSankhya explains everything with two realities: pure consciousness (purusha) and nature (prakriti). In Sankhya, the mind belongs to nature, not to consciousness.Western link Close to mind-body dualism, as in Descartes. The key difference: Sankhya puts the mind on the material side; only pure consciousness is separate.Full entry in the glossary. The other three options are points on the opposite side: they suggest that religion is still present. The guide's conclusion is that Indian psychology draws on religious traditions without being the same as any one religion.

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Question 41Philosophy and psychologyUnderstand A researcher argues that reports of pure consciousness can be checked only by investigators whose own consciousness has been changed by long practice. Which of the guide's three positions on metaphysics does this researcher take?
Set the metaphysics aside and study only the effects of practice Treat the metaphysics as a hypothesis that observation could support or weaken Reach the metaphysics only by changing yourself None of the three: this is positivism

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Answer: C. This is position C in the guide: the deepest truths can be known only by a researcher whose consciousness has been transformed. Cornelissen argues that inner reports can be checked only by people with "inner instruments of knowledge that are similar or better in quality". Kundan Singh says that "the researcher and the researched become one". Option B is position B, which turns big claims into statements that ordinary observation could test. Positivism is the opposite view: only observation and measurement count.

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Question 42Philosophy and psychologyApply Which of these is a claim about sat rather than satyam, in Rao and Paranjpe's sense?
Slow breathing lowers heart rate in anxious students The true self is pure consciousness People who practise yoga report less stress than people who do not Meditation training improves attention in older adults

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Answer: B. Satsat and satyamसत्, सत्यम्sat, satyamsay: suht, suht-yuhmLiterally: sat: being, what truly is; satyam: truthRao and Paranjpe use sat for an absolute truth that can never be shown false, and satyam for what has been found true so far and stays open to revision.Western link Like the difference between a metaphysical certainty and a scientific finding that holds only until it is refuted, as in Popper's idea of falsification.Full entry in the glossary is "an absolute truth that can never be falsified". A claim that the true self is pure consciousness is of this kind, because no study can overturn it. The other three claims are satyam: true so far, if the evidence supports them, and open to revision by a better study. When an author slides from "meditation improves attention" to "meditation reveals the self", the step is from satyam to sat.

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Question 43Philosophy and psychologyUnderstand Rao and Paranjpe (2016, sec. 1.3.4) write: "In the Indian tradition, experience is an item for realization and not of observation." What contrast are they drawing with Western introspectionintrospectionLiterally: Latin intro (within) + spicere (to look)Introspection means looking inward: observing and reporting one's own thoughts, feelings and sensations.Indian link svadhyaya (self-study) and the witness stance (sakshi) trained in meditation.Full entry in the glossary?
Introspection turned experience into reports others could check; the Indian aim was to be changed by it Indian schools rejected all self-observation as unreliable, for the same reasons Watson gave in 1913 Western psychology studied inner experience, while the Indian schools studied only outward behaviour Realization means recalling an experience accurately later, while observation happens at the time

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Answer: A. Rao and Paranjpe say that refined introspection aimed at "transforming experience into observation", so that reports could be compared. In the Indian tradition the goal was to realise the truth of an experience in one's own being, not to stand back and describe it. Option B is wrong because Indian schools trained inner observation for centuries. Option C reverses the picture, and option D invents a meaning of realization that the authors do not use.

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Question 44Three perspectivesRemember Durganand Sinha (1994) said that the call for indigenization "does not apply" to some areas of psychology. Which areas?
Areas that study the biological and physiological side of behaviour Social and organisational psychology, which study groups at work Clinical and developmental psychology, which study illness and growth Personality psychology, which studies how people differ from each other

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Answer: A. Sinha wrote that in biological and physiological areas, "universality of principles and theories is seldom questioned". In social, organisational, personality, clinical and developmental psychology he saw indigenizationindigenizationIndigenization is the process of making a discipline fit a local culture, either by building it from local ideas or by adapting imported theories and methods.Indian link no classical term. It is part of modern efforts to renew Indian psychology.Full entry in the glossary "not only as desirable but also inevitable". Higher perception and thinking fall in between. The guide calls this the clearest statement in the sources about how the three perspectives relate.

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Question 45Three perspectivesUnderstand In Rao's model the mind is subtle matter, and consciousness is not produced by the mind or the brain. What follows for biological research, in Rao's view?
It is irrelevant to Indian psychology, which studies consciousness instead It can explain everything about consciousness, once the brain is fully mapped It is useful, but not enough for a complete understanding of human nature It should be replaced by Ayurveda, which already joins body and mind

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Answer: C. Rao (2008) says that neurophysiological studies "are not considered irrelevant to Indian psychology, but are regarded as insufficient". In his view the mind is material but subtle, so the body and brain can be studied. Consciousness is like the light that a mirror shows: the mirror does not make it. Option A is the tempting misreading, and Rao rejects it directly.

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Question 46Three perspectivesUnderstand Which feature separates the three gunas most clearly from a Western personality trait such as extraversion?
The gunas are ranked, they describe foods and actions too, and a person's mix can change The gunas can be measured with questionnaires, while traits can be known only by observation The gunas describe only the body and its health, while traits describe only the mind The gunas are fixed at birth and never change, unlike most personality traits

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Answer: A. The gunasgunaगुणguṇasay: gu-nuhLiterally: strand, thread; qualityThe gunas are the three qualities that make up nature and mind: sattva (clarity), rajas (activity) and tamas (inertia). Their mix shapes personality.Western link Close to trait or temperament models of personality, such as the Big Five. The difference: the gunas also describe matter, and their balance can change with practice.Full entry in the glossary differ from traits in three ways. They are ranked, because sattvasattvaसत्त्वsay: suht-tvuhLiterally: being-ness; from sat, beingSattva is the guna of clarity, lightness and calm. A sattvic mind is clear, peaceful and ready for knowledge.Western link Close to emotional stability and openness in trait models, or to a calm, focused state. Unlike a trait, sattva is also a quality of foods and actions.Full entry in the glossary is valued above tamastamasतमस्say: tuh-muhsLiterally: darknessTamas is the guna of heaviness, dullness and inertia. It brings sleep, confusion and resistance to change.Western link Close to low arousal, inertia, or the lethargy seen in depression. The difference: tamas is also a quality of matter and of food.Full entry in the glossary. They describe the whole of nature, foods and actions included. And a person's mix can change with practice, diet and way of life. Extraversion carries no such ranking and is not expected to change through diet or spiritual practice. Option B is wrong, because both can be measured with questionnaires. The ranking is also why self-report guna scales may measure what people wish they were.

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Question 47Three perspectivesUnderstand Dosha literally means "defect" or "fault". In Ayurveda, how do the three doshas relate to health?
Any dosha at all is a fault, so good health means removing all three of them Only pitta, linked with fire, is a fault; vata and kapha keep a person healthy The doshas describe the mind alone, while the gunas describe only the body Each person is born with a mix of the three, and a balanced mix of them means health

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Answer: D. Ayurveda describes three doshasdoshaदोषdoṣasay: do-shuhLiterally: fault, defectIn Ayurveda, the doshas are three bodily forces: vata, pitta and kapha. Health is their balance; illness comes when they are out of balance.Western link Loosely close to the four humours of ancient Greek medicine, or to temperament types. The difference: doshas are not part of modern physiology, and self-report dosha questionnaires still need validation.Full entry in the glossary: vatavataवातvātasay: vaa-tuhLiterally: wind (vā-, to blow)Vata is the Ayurvedic dosha of movement, linked with air. It governs breathing, circulation and all movement in body and mind.Western link No direct match. Vata types resemble restless, changeable temperaments, but vata is a body-mind process concept, not a psychological diagnosis.Full entry in the glossary, pittapittaपित्तsay: pit-tuhLiterally: bilePitta is the Ayurvedic dosha of heat and change, linked with fire. It governs digestion, body heat and sharpness of mind.Western link No direct match. Pitta types resemble quick, intense temperaments, but pitta is a body-mind process concept, not a trait measure.Full entry in the glossary and kaphakaphaकफsay: kuh-phuhLiterally: phlegmKapha is the Ayurvedic dosha of structure and stability, linked with water and earth. It gives the body strength and the mind steadiness.Western link No direct match. Kapha types resemble calm, steady temperaments, but kapha is a body-mind process concept, not a trait measure.Full entry in the glossary. Each person is born with a particular mix, the person's constitution. A balanced mix means health, and an imbalance means illness of body or mind. So the literal meaning misleads: in balance, the doshas are what keep a person healthy (Rao and Paranjpe, 2016, section 5.11). Option C is wrong because the doshas describe body type and temperament together. The page also warns that the doshas are not part of modern physiology, and that dosha questionnaires still need testing.

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Question 48Three perspectivesApply Before a job interview, Arun (an invented example) notices that his breath is fast and shallow and his thoughts are racing. He sits down and slows his breathing for two minutes, and his mind settles. How would Yoga's idea of prana explain what happened?
The body causes the mind, so slow breathing works only by changing the chemistry of the brain Prana is pure consciousness, so slow breathing lets his true self take control of the mind Body, breath and mind are levels of one system, so changing the breath changes the mind The mind causes the body, so his slower breathing only showed that his worry had already ended

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Answer: C. Yoga and Ayurveda describe pranapranaप्राणprāṇasay: praa-nuhLiterally: breath, life (pra + an-, to breathe)Prana is breath and life energy. Yoga and Ayurveda say it moves through the body in five main currents and links body and mind.Western link Close to 'vital energy' in older Western ideas, or to breathing and autonomic regulation in physiology. Modern science has no measure for prana as such.Full entry in the glossary, breath and life energy, as the link between body and mind. When the breath is fast and uneven, the mind is agitated; when it is slow and even, the mind settles. The idea is that body, breath and mind are three levels of one system, and you can enter the system at any level. Option A is the usual Western biological picture, in which the body causes the mind; the guide says that is not the Yoga idea. Option B confuses prana with pure consciousness, which in Sankhya and Yoga does not act at all.

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Question 49Three perspectivesApply A grandmother tells her grandson that a joke which is fine among friends is wrong at a funeral. She adds that what was proper in her village fifty years ago may not be proper in a city office today. Which idea is she using, and how does it compare with Kurt Lewin's idea that behaviour depends on the person and the environment together?
Desh-kala-patra; like Lewin's idea, it only explains behaviour and does not judge it Karma; she explains each act by actions the person did in earlier lives Desh-kala-patra; unlike Lewin's idea, it adds time and judges whether acts are right Varnashrama dharma; she ties right conduct to a person's birth and caste

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Answer: C. Desh-kala-patradesh-kala-patraदेश-काल-पात्रdeśa-kāla-pātrasay: day-shuh kaa-luh paa-truhLiterally: place, time and person (literally 'vessel')Place, time and person: the three things Hindu tradition says you must know before you can judge an action as right or wrong.Western link Close to Kurt Lewin's idea that behaviour depends on the person and the situation together. The difference: desh-kala-patra adds time, and it is used to judge whether an act is right, not only to explain it.Full entry in the glossary means place, time and person: you must know all three before you judge an act. Lewin also said that you cannot explain behaviour from the person alone. But his idea is descriptive, while desh-kala-patra is a rule for judging right and wrong, and it adds time. Option A gets the likeness right and the difference wrong.

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Question 50Three perspectivesUnderstand How does cultural psychology differ from cross-cultural psychology?
It tests whether a theory or test from one country holds in other countries It studies how biology and genes differ between peoples in different countries It rejects every comparison between cultures, as meaningless and unfair It holds that culture and mind make each other, and studies culture from inside

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Answer: D. In cultural psychologycultural psychologyCultural psychology studies how culture and mind shape each other. It holds that people's thinking and feeling cannot be understood apart from their cultural setting.Indian link the context-sensitive view of dharma, in which right action depends on place, time and person.Full entry in the glossary, culture is part of the psyche, not a variable added on top, as Misra and Gergen (1993) argued. Option A describes cross-cultural psychologycross-cultural psychologyCross-cultural psychology compares people from different cultures to find which psychological patterns are universal and which differ.Indian link no classical term.Full entry in the glossary, which takes a theory or test from one country and gives it to people in others. Option C goes too far: cultural psychology studies a culture in its own terms before comparing it with anything else.

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Question 51Three perspectivesApply Researchers in Kenya, India and Peru each study, in local terms, what people mean by a "good friend". They then compare the three studies and build a general concept from what the studies share. What kind of concept is this?
A derived etic An imposed etic A purely emic concept An example of cultural relativism

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Answer: A. A derived etic is a general concept built up by comparing several careful emic studies, so that the universal is found rather than assumed. Option B is the opposite: one culture's concept, often a Western test, treated as universal from the start. Option C is tempting because each study begins from the inside, but the final step of comparison makes the concept etic. See emic and eticemic and eticsay: ee-mik, e-tikLiterally: from the linguistics terms 'phonemic' and 'phonetic'An emic approach studies a culture from the inside, using its own concepts. An etic approach studies it from the outside, using concepts meant to fit all cultures.Indian link studying a darshana on its own terms (emic) versus comparing it with Western psychology (etic).Full entry in the glossary.

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Question 52Three perspectivesRemember Dalal (2000) reviewed five Indian hospital studies of how patients explain their illness. What did he conclude?
Karma beliefs helped patients to recover in all five studies, whatever the illness Karma explanations were common, but they had no consistent link with how patients adjusted Karma beliefs made recovery worse in all five studies, whatever the illness Very few patients explained their illness by karma or by the will of God

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Answer: B. Dalal found that patients "consistently attributed their illness to karmakarmaकर्मsay: kuhr-muhLiterally: action, deed; from kṛ-, to doKarma means action, and also the result that every action brings back to the person who did it, in this life or a later one.Western link Close to moral causation, or 'you reap what you sow'. The difference: in most schools karma is an impersonal law that works across lives; theistic schools say God oversees it, but even there it is not a judge's verdict on a single life.Full entry in the glossary and God's will", but found "no consistent linkages" with adjustment. The meaning of the belief shifts with the illness and the social setting. In one heart-attack study, beliefs in karma went with better recovery, while blaming the illness on God went with worse recovery and mood. So neither option A nor option C holds in general.

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Question 53Three perspectivesApply A researcher calls the bond between guru and disciple "just the ordinary bond between counsellor and client", measures it only with a Western questionnaire, and drops every idea from the tradition. Which of Manickam's five attitudes does this show?
Import-manufacture Jasmine in one's own courtyard Crab in the open jar India-made foreign

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Answer: D. Manickam (2008) uses "India-made foreign" for forcing an Indian idea into a Western label, as when yoga becomes "relaxation". Here the relationship between guruguruगुरुsay: gu-ruLiterally: heavy, weighty; hence venerableA guru is a teacher, especially a spiritual teacher who guides a student in knowledge and practice. The guru is deeply respected in Indian tradition.Western link Close to a mentor or a therapist. The difference: the guru teaches by example and personal realisation, and the relationship includes devotion and service.Full entry in the glossary and disciple, which Neki (1973) proposed as a model for Indian psychotherapy, is renamed with a Western label and studied only in Western terms. Option A is the reverse mistake: claiming that a Western idea "was always in our texts". Jasmine in one's own courtyard means ignoring the riches of one's own tradition, and crab in the open jar means pulling down colleagues who try something new.

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Question 54The paradigm debateApply Which of these claims is falsifiable in Popper's sense?
Four weeks of slow breathing lowers students' scores on an anxiety scale Everything that happens to a person, good or bad, happens for a reason Pure consciousness exists beyond all experience, and the mind only reflects it The true self is beyond words, so no description of it can ever be complete

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Answer: A. A claim is falsifiablefalsifiabilityLiterally: Latin falsus, falseFalsifiability means a claim could, in principle, be shown false by evidence. Karl Popper proposed it as the test that separates science from non-science.Indian link none exactly. Indian debate (vada) tested claims against counter-examples, and Nyaya lists types of faulty reasoning (hetvabhasa).Full entry in the glossary if you can say what evidence would prove it wrong. If students who practised slow breathing for four weeks scored no lower than students who did not, the breathing claim would fail. Whatever happens, a believer can say there was a reason, so option B cannot be shown false. The claims about pure consciousness and the true self also allow no observation that could count against them. PopperKarl PopperAustrian-born philosopher of science who argued that a theory is scientific only if evidence could, in principle, show it to be false.Full entry in the glossary did not call such claims worthless, only not science.

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Question 55The paradigm debateUnderstand The guide concludes that most writers on Indian psychology use the word "paradigm" in one main way. Which way?
In Kuhn's strict sense: the shared framework of a mature science, including the model examples its students copy To mean a proven theory that replaces all earlier ones To mean a statistical model of research data To mean a worldview or a set of basic assumptions

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Answer: D. Most of these writers use "paradigm" for a worldview or a set of deep assumptions. The Foundations editors, for example, try to set out "the basic 'paradigm' of the Indian tradition". KuhnThomas KuhnAmerican historian of science (1922 to 1996). His book The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1962) made the word 'paradigm' famous.Full entry in the glossary's strict sense, option A, is narrower: the theories, methods, values and model examples that one scientific community shares. When you write about the "paradigm debate", say which sense you mean.

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Question 56The paradigm debateUnderstand Why does the guide say that Lakatos's model fits psychology better than Kuhn's?
Psychology has many rival schools, and Lakatos allows several programmes at once Psychology has always shared one single framework, which is what Kuhn's model requires Lakatos proved that Indian psychology is a science, while Kuhn said it was not Kuhn wrote his model only for physics, and Lakatos wrote his for psychology

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Answer: A. Kuhn's model fits a mature science in which almost everyone shares one framework. Psychology has never been like that: behaviourism, psychoanalysis, cognitive psychology and humanistic psychology have long existed side by side, so option B reverses the facts. LakatosImre Lakatossay: im-ray lak-uh-tosHungarian-born philosopher of science who worked in London. He described science as competing 'research programmes', each with a protected hard core and a testable outer belt.Full entry in the glossary describes rival research programmesresearch programmeImre Lakatos's term for a line of research with a protected 'hard core' of basic assumptions and an outer 'protective belt' of hypotheses that are tested and changed.Indian link a darshana, a school with fixed core assumptions and many arguments built around them.Full entry in the glossary, each judged by the new findings it produces. Rao and Paranjpe (2016) use this idea: "Indian psychology does offer such programs."

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Question 57The paradigm debateApply Suppose Indian psychology is treated as a research programme in Lakatos's sense. Which of these belongs to its protective belt rather than its hard core?
Pure consciousness exists, and it is not the same as the mind Any person's mind can be trained and changed by steady practice Consciousness is more basic than matter, and matter depends on it Eight weeks of breath practice reduces students' attention errors

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Answer: D. The protective belt holds specific hypotheses that can be tested and changed. A claim that a named practice, done for a set time, reduces a measured outcome is of this kind: a study could show it false. The hard core holds the assumptions the programme protects, such as the existence of pure consciousness. Option B is tempting because it sounds testable, but it is too general for any one study to refute, and the diagram on the page, following Sedlmeier, places it in the hard core. Sedlmeier calls this shared background the "metatheory", and says that it is not open to falsification.

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Question 58The paradigm debateRemember What are second-person methods?
A trained interviewer helps a person describe their experience precisely A person observes and reports their own experience alone, for example in a mood diary Researchers measure what anyone can observe, such as reaction times or brain scans Two researchers compare the questionnaire scores of a group

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Answer: A. Second-person methods sit between first-person and third-person methods. A trained interviewer, or in the Indian tradition a guruguruगुरुsay: gu-ruLiterally: heavy, weighty; hence venerableA guru is a teacher, especially a spiritual teacher who guides a student in knowledge and practice. The guru is deeply respected in Indian tradition.Western link Close to a mentor or a therapist. The difference: the guru teaches by example and personal realisation, and the relationship includes devotion and service.Full entry in the glossary, helps a person describe and check their reports. Option B is a first-person methodfirst-person methodA first-person method studies experience from the inside, through a person's own observation and report of what they experience.Indian link nididhyasana, meditative realisation, which Rao treats as the first-person stage of knowing; and yogic perception (yogi pratyaksha).Full entry in the glossary, and option C is a third-person method. Rao (2008) links the three to the classical stages of learning: hearing, reflecting and meditative realisation.

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Question 59The paradigm debateUnderstand Cornelissen admits that relying on advanced practitioners to check inner knowledge could look like "a reprehensible form of occult elitism". What is his reply?
Inner knowledge is certain in itself, so it does not need to be checked by anyone Only the scriptures of a tradition can check whether inner knowledge is true Inner reports should be replaced by brain scans, which anyone can check Equally or better qualified observers check it, as in physics or mathematics

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Answer: D. CornelissenMatthijs CornelissenDutch-born doctor and psychologist living in India since 1976. He founded the Indian Psychology Institute in Pondicherry and co-edited Foundations of Indian Psychology.Full entry in the glossary argues that inner states need "reliable subjectivity". Yoga trains the observer, as mathematics and instruments train the physicist, and reports are checked by "equally or better qualified observers". Option A misses his point, because he accepts that checking is needed. Critics still ask how anyone outside the trained group could confirm such reports.

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Question 60The paradigm debateRemember Which means of valid knowledge (pramanas) did the Charvaka school, the Buddhists and Nyaya each accept?
Charvaka: inference only. Buddhists: testimony only. Nyaya: perception and inference, plus comparison Charvaka: perception and inference. Buddhists: perception only. Nyaya: comparison and testimony, no others Charvaka: testimony only. Buddhists: perception, inference and testimony. Nyaya: perception alone Charvaka: perception only. Buddhists: perception and inference. Nyaya: both, plus comparison and testimony

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Answer: D. The CharvakaCharvakaचार्वाकCārvākasay: chaar-vaa-kuhLiterally: uncertain (one guess is 'sweet-tongued', caru + vac); the other name, Lokayata, means 'directed at the world' (loka + ayata)Charvaka, also called Lokayata, is India's materialist school. It held that only matter is real and that perception is the only sure way of knowing.Western link Close to materialism and empiricism in Western philosophy. Like modern physicalism, it explains the mind as a product of the body.Full entry in the glossary school accepted perception (pratyakshapratyakshaप्रत्यक्षpratyakṣasay: pruh-tyuhk-shuhLiterally: before the eyes (prati + akṣa)Pratyaksha is perception: knowledge that comes directly through the senses. All Indian schools accept it as a valid means of knowledge.Western link Close to 'perception' in psychology; the two stages resemble the step from sensation to recognition. Yogic perception has no accepted match in Western science.Full entry in the glossary) alone. Buddhists accepted perception and inference (anumanaanumanaअनुमानanumānasay: uh-nu-maa-nuhLiterally: measuring after (anu + māna)Anumana is inference: knowing something you cannot see from a sign you can see. The classic example: there is smoke on the hill, so there is fire.Western link Close to inference in logic, mixing deductive and inductive reasoning. The difference: the Indian form always includes a real example from experience.Full entry in the glossary). NyayaNyayaन्यायNyāyasay: nyaa-yuhLiterally: rule, method, standard; 'that into which a thing goes back' (ni + i-, to go)Nyaya is the Indian school of logic and of the theory of knowledge. It studies how we can know things correctly and how to argue well.Western link Close to logic and epistemology in Western philosophy. The differences: Nyaya also aims at liberation, and its inference always includes an example from experience.Full entry in the glossary, as the reality page notes, accepted four: perception, inference, comparison and testimony (shabdashabdaशब्दśabdasay: shuhb-duhLiterally: sound, wordShabda is knowledge from words: the testimony of a reliable person or of scripture. It is how we learn most things we cannot check ourselves.Western link Close to 'testimony' in modern epistemology, which studies how we trust others' reports. Science accepts expert testimony, but not scripture, as evidence.Full entry in the glossary). Option B swaps the Charvaka and Buddhist positions. Testimony is where the debate with mainstream science gets sharp, because science accepts it only when it can in principle be checked by observation.

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Question 61The paradigm debateRemember What did the review of 47 controlled trials of meditation programmes in medicine (Goyal and colleagues, 2014) find?
Strong evidence that meditation cures depression in most of the patients in the trials Moderate evidence of benefit for anxiety, depression and pain, but no edge over other treatments No effect of meditation on any of the outcomes that the trials measured Clear evidence that meditation works better than exercise or medicines in most trials

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Answer: B. The review found moderate evidence for anxiety, depression and pain. It found no evidence that meditation works better than other active treatments, such as exercise or medicines, which rules out option D. The larger psychology review by Sedlmeier and colleagues (2012) found a medium-sized average effect, largest on emotional and relationship measures.

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Question 62The paradigm debateApply The guide sorts the claims of Indian psychology into three levels. At which level is the claim "A questionnaire can show which of the three doshas is strongest in a person"?
Practices Concepts Metaphysics Parapsychology

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Answer: B. The claim says that an Indian concept, the doshasdoshaदोषdoṣasay: do-shuhLiterally: fault, defectIn Ayurveda, the doshas are three bodily forces: vata, pitta and kapha. Health is their balance; illness comes when they are out of balance.Western link Loosely close to the four humours of ancient Greek medicine, or to temperament types. The difference: doshas are not part of modern physiology, and self-report dosha questionnaires still need validation.Full entry in the glossary, can be measured, so it sits at the level of concepts. At that level, the guide says, such ideas can be measured but the quality of the scales varies, and the perspectives page warns that dosha questionnaires still need testing to show that they measure what they claim. A practice claim says that something people do, such as breath practice, has an effect. A metaphysical claim, such as "pure consciousness exists apart from the brain", is not tested by current research and is perhaps not testable. Parapsychology is not one of the three levels.

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Question 63The paradigm debateRemember In the three steps of study in Advaita Vedanta, what is manana?
Listening carefully to the teaching, as a student listens to a lecture or reads a book Reflecting on the teaching again and again until every doubt about it is answered Contemplation so complete and steady that no other thought enters the mind Reciting the text aloud, every day, until every word of it is known by heart

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Answer: B. The three steps of shravana, manana and nididhyasanashravana, manana, nididhyasanaश्रवण, मनन, निदिध्यासनśravaṇa, manana, nididhyāsanasay: shruh-vuh-nuh, muh-nuh-nuh, ni-di-dhyaa-suh-nuhLiterally: hearing, reflecting, deep meditationThree stages of learning in the Upanishads and Vedanta: hearing the teaching, thinking it through, and meditating on it until it is realised.Western link Like moving from a lecture, to discussion and critical thinking, to practice that changes you. The difference: the last stage is said to change the learner's being, not only their knowledge.Full entry in the glossary are hearing, reflecting and realising. Mananamananaमननsay: muh-nuh-nuhLiterally: thinking over, reflection; from man-, to thinkThe second step of knowing in Vedanta: thinking a teaching through, testing it with reason until doubts are removed.Western link Close to critical thinking and reflection. The difference: the aim is to remove doubt so that deep meditation can follow, not to reach a final answer by reasoning alone.Full entry in the glossary is the middle step, where reasoning (tarkatarkaतर्कsay: tuhr-kuhLiterally: reasoning, suppositionTarka means reasoning. In Indian logic it tests a supposition by following it until it meets a contradiction, and it helps inference by clearing doubt.Western link Close to reductio ad absurdum and to testing a hypothesis by its consequences. The difference: tarka proves nothing alone; it serves an inference or a teaching already received.Full entry in the glossary) answers every doubt: Paranjpe and Rao (2008, p. 276) write that "Not a single doubt or objection should remain unexamined." Option A describes shravana and option C describes nididhyasana. Option D sounds like an old method of study, but it is not one of the three steps.

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Question 64The paradigm debateUnderstand Some Indian schools describe yogi pratyaksha: a perception, gained by advanced meditators, of things the ordinary senses cannot reach. Which statement best describes its status for a psychologist?
An established finding of modern psychology, shown by laboratory studies of yogis A Buddhist idea that the Nyaya-Vaisheshika and Jain schools rejected outright Ordinary perception sharpened by expertise, like a radiologist reading an X-ray A claim of several schools, which should be reported as a claim, not a finding

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Answer: D. Nyaya-Vaisheshika, the Buddhist logicians Dinnaga and Dharmakirti, and Jainism all describe some form of yogi pratyakshayogi pratyakshaयोगिप्रत्यक्षyogipratyakṣasay: yo-gi pruh-tyuhk-shuhLiterally: perception of a yogiYogi pratyaksha is the direct perception that several Indian schools say advanced meditators gain: knowing things that the ordinary senses cannot reach.Western link Nearest to the trained perception of experts, and to William James's 'noetic quality' of mystical states, which feel like knowledge. The difference: yogi pratyaksha claims to reach objects outside the senses altogether.Full entry in the glossary, so option B is wrong. Option C is the nearest Western idea, but yogi pratyaksha claims more: it says it reaches objects outside the senses altogether. Modern psychology has not established this, so option A is wrong. It belongs with the claims about psiparapsychologyLiterally: Greek para, beside or beyondParapsychology studies claimed abilities that seem to go beyond the known senses and body, such as extrasensory perception (ESP). These claimed effects are called 'psi'.Indian link siddhi, the special powers described in the Yoga Sutras.Full entry in the glossary that the guide asks you to report as claims.

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Question 65The paradigm debateApply A meditation teacher (an invented example) tells a research student: "I know my experience of pure consciousness was true. I felt complete certainty, and my own guruguruगुरुsay: gu-ruLiterally: heavy, weighty; hence venerableA guru is a teacher, especially a spiritual teacher who guides a student in knowledge and practice. The guru is deeply respected in Indian tradition.Western link Close to a mentor or a therapist. The difference: the guru teaches by example and personal realisation, and the relationship includes devotion and service.Full entry in the glossary confirmed it." Using the guide's account of subjective validity, which response is fairest?
It is evidence about the experience, but certainty and a guru's check are not public tests The claim is false, because only third-person evidence can count as knowledge in psychology The claim proves that pure consciousness exists, because realisation validates itself The claim must be ignored, because no Western method takes a person's own account seriously

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Answer: A. Rao and Paranjpe (2016, sec. 1.3.4) say that realisation "engenders instant conviction of certainty" and that the guru's check gives "in-group inter-subject validity". That is a strength, because the person's experience counts as evidence. It is also a problem, because conviction is not proof and an in-group check is not open to everyone. Option B throws away first-person evidence, option C treats conviction as proof, and option D is false: member checking in qualitative research does take participants' accounts seriously.

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Question 66The paradigm debateApply A student (an invented example) says: "This news channel tells the truth. I know, because the channel itself says it tells the truth." Which fault would Nyaya's tarkatarkaतर्कsay: tuhr-kuhLiterally: reasoning, suppositionTarka means reasoning. In Indian logic it tests a supposition by following it until it meets a contradiction, and it helps inference by clearing doubt.Western link Close to reductio ad absurdum and to testing a hypothesis by its consequences. The difference: tarka proves nothing alone; it serves an inference or a teaching already received.Full entry in the glossary point to?
Infinite regress: each reason needs a further reason, without end Mutual dependence: A rests on B, and B rests on A Self-dependence: the claim is used to prove itself Breaking the rule of the simpler supposition, by adding something unperceived

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Answer: C. The channel's honesty is proved by the channel's own word, so the claim rests on itself. Misra (2014, p. 122) lists self-dependence first among the faults that reasoning must check. Option B is close, but mutual dependence needs two different claims that support each other. There is no endless chain of reasons here, so option A does not fit, and option D names a different rule of inquiry.

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Question 67WorldviewRemember How did Koltko-Rivera (2004) define a worldview?
A tested scientific theory about human nature and how people behave in groups The religion into which a person is born, with its beliefs and rituals The shared framework of a scientific community, in Thomas Kuhn's sense of the word Assumptions about physical and social reality that may shape thinking and behaviour

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Answer: D. Koltko-Rivera defined a worldviewworldviewA worldview is a person's or a culture's basic picture of reality: what exists, what matters, and how life should be lived.Indian link darshana ('view'), and drishti (a view or outlook).Full entry in the glossary as "a set of assumptions about physical and social reality that may have powerful effects on cognition and behavior". Assumptions are taken for granted, not tested, which rules out option A. The effects mean that a worldview shapes what people notice, think, feel and do. Option C is Kuhn's idea of a paradigm, which is narrower. People learn a worldview from their culture, religion and language, but it is not the same thing as a religion.

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Question 68WorldviewUnderstand The Vedic idea of rta is close to the scientist's idea of laws of nature. Where does it differ?
Rta is moral as well as physical: right conduct is part of the same order Rta allows the universe to be chaotic, with events that follow no pattern Rta applies only to human beings and their duties, not to the natural world Rta is a Buddhist idea that the Hindu schools later rejected as false

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Answer: A. In the Rig Veda, rtartaऋतṛtasay: ri-tuhLiterally: what moves in order; truth, orderRta is the Vedic idea of cosmic order: the law that keeps the seasons, the stars and right human conduct in harmony.Western link Close to 'natural law', or to the Greek idea of the cosmos as an ordered whole. The difference: rta joins physical, moral and ritual order in one idea.Full entry in the glossary means both truth and an unbreakable order of events. The sun rises, the seasons turn, and right human conduct belongs to the same order. That moral side is the difference from laws of nature. Option B reverses the idea: the universe is "a cosmos and not chaos" (Paranjpe, 2011).

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Question 69WorldviewUnderstand Why do Rao and Paranjpe argue that translating dharma as "religion" is a mistake?
Dharma means only the duties of one's caste Dharma is lived practice, not a belief system Dharma means only the teaching of the Buddha Dharma is a law of physics with no moral side

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Answer: B. Dharmadharmaधर्मsay: dhuhr-muhLiterally: that which holds or supports; from dhṛ-, to holdDharma is the right way of living: duty, ethics, and the order that holds society and the world together. It depends partly on one's role and stage of life.Western link Close to 'ethics', 'duty' or 'moral order'. The difference: dharma joins personal ethics, social roles and cosmic law, and it depends on context.Full entry in the glossary comes from the root dhr, "to hold, to support". It covers duty, right, justice, virtue and morality, as a way of living rather than a creed. Option A is too narrow: some duties, such as truthfulness and self-control, apply to everyone, and only varnashrama dharma depends on social group and stage of life. In Buddhism the Pali form, Dhamma, usually means the Buddha's teaching, but that is a different use.

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Question 70WorldviewUnderstand Which statement fits the account of karma given by Rao and Paranjpe and by the Mahabharata?
Karma is fate: everything is fixed at birth, so effort is pointless Karma implies free will, and in the end effort matters more than fortune does Karma is simply the belief in a just world, given an Indian name Karma concerns only ritual acts, and not the ordinary actions of daily life

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Answer: B. Karmakarmaकर्मsay: kuhr-muhLiterally: action, deed; from kṛ-, to doKarma means action, and also the result that every action brings back to the person who did it, in this life or a later one.Western link Close to moral causation, or 'you reap what you sow'. The difference: in most schools karma is an impersonal law that works across lives; theistic schools say God oversees it, but even there it is not a judge's verdict on a single life.Full entry in the glossary first means action of body, speech and mind, and in Indian usage it "clearly implies free will". The MahabharataMahabharataमहाभारतMahābhāratasay: muh-haa-bhaa-ruh-tuhLiterally: the great (story of the) BharatasThe Mahabharata is a very long Sanskrit epic about a war between two related royal families. The Bhagavad Gita is one part of it.Western link Often compared with Homer's Iliad. It is much longer, and it contains whole books of moral and philosophical teaching.Full entry in the glossary calls effort the field and fortune the seed, and says that in the end effort matters more. Option C is tempting, but karma treats intentions and moral worth as real causes and stretches across lives, while the just-world belief is a bias that psychologists measure.

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Question 71WorldviewUnderstand How does moksha, the fourth aim of life, differ from the top of Maslow's best-known hierarchy of needs?
Moksha is the same as self-actualisation under an Indian name Moksha must come first, before wealth and pleasure can be pursued Moksha concerns wealth and power, while self-actualisation concerns meaning Moksha is release from striving altogether, not the highest step of growth

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Answer: D. In MaslowAbraham MaslowAmerican psychologist (1908 to 1970), a founder of humanistic and later transpersonal psychology. He is known for the hierarchy of needs and 'self-actualisation'.Full entry in the glossary's best-known model, self-actualisation is the top of a ladder of growth. Mokshamokshaमोक्षmokṣasay: mok-shuhLiterally: release, freedom; from muc-, to freeMoksha means liberation: final freedom from the cycle of rebirth and from suffering. It is the highest of the four aims of life.Western link Close to 'salvation' in religion, or to 'self-transcendence' in transpersonal psychology. The difference: moksha is freedom through knowledge or insight, not a reward from outside.Full entry in the glossary is release from striving, not its highest step. Maslow later placed self-transcendence above self-actualisation, which comes closer to moksha, but it is still framed as a further stage of growth. Option C describes arthaarthaअर्थsay: uhr-thuhLiterally: aim, purpose; object, meaning; wealthArtha is the life aim of wealth, work and material security. It is one of the four purusharthas and is a worthy goal when pursued within dharma.Western link Close to economic and security needs, or to work and career in psychology. The difference: artha is a duty and a value, not only a need.Full entry in the glossary, another of the four aims of life.

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Question 72WorldviewRemember White and Willard (2025) studied about 6,000 people in India, Singapore and the United States. They found that karmic thinking pulls in two directions. What were the two directions?
It made people happier in daily life, but more anxious about their own death It went with justifying inequality, yet karma reminders made people more generous to some It helped recovery from heart attacks, but it harmed recovery from cancer and stroke It made Indians more fatalistic, while it made Americans work harder than before

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Answer: B. Karmic thinking went with beliefs that justify existing inequality. Yet reminders of karma made people more generous, though only towards people whose need was not their own fault. The first finding echoes AmbedkarB. R. Ambedkarsay: uhm-bayd-kuhrIndian jurist, economist and social reformer (1891 to 1956), born into a caste treated as 'untouchable'. He chaired the committee that drafted India's Constitution and attacked caste and its religious justifications.Full entry in the glossary, who listed "the heartless law of karma" among the instruments of torture used against the Untouchables. The guide says a fair account teaches karma's comfort and its political use together.

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Question 73WorldviewApply In a survey in a district town, students from poor families credit their successes to luck or God but blame themselves for their failures. A visiting economist says this proves that the doctrine of karma makes people fatalistic. Which reply fits the evidence in the guide?
Social position matters more than doctrine; it may reflect a real lack of control The economist is right, because Weber and McClelland made the same claim long ago The economist is right, because karma means that no effort can ever change anything The finding shows that belief in cyclical time makes people passive and resigned

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Answer: A. Durganand Sinha found that the fatalism claim "has not yet been conclusively supported by empirical studies". Indian studies point to social position instead. Children from disadvantaged castes were more external in their locus of controllocus of controlLiterally: Latin locus, placeLocus of control is how far a person believes that what happens to them depends on their own actions (internal) or on outside forces such as luck or fate (external).Indian link the Mahabharata's discussion of human effort and fortune (daiva), which says that in the end effort matters more.Full entry in the glossary (Das and Panda, 1971), and underprivileged students showed exactly this pattern of credit and blame (Sinha, 1980). Option B names scholars who made the claim, not evidence for it.

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Question 74WorldviewApply A lecturer says: "Indians are collectivist and Americans are individualist. That is the whole difference." Which finding from Indian research most directly complicates this?
Lamba and colleagues (2021) found that belief in rebirth went with lower anxiety about death Dalal (2000) found no consistent links between karma beliefs and adjustment to illness Sinha and Tripathi (1994) found both individualist and collectivist tendencies in Indians Pande and Naidu (1992) found that non-attachment was the strongest predictor of symptoms

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Answer: C. The contrast between the independent self and the interdependent selfinterdependent selfA way of seeing oneself as part of a web of relationships, with family, group and duties at the centre of who one is, rather than a separate set of personal traits.Indian link the self as defined through family, community and dharma, the duties of one's role.Full entry in the glossary comes from Markus and Kitayama (1991). Sinha and Tripathi (1994) found that Indians show both tendencies together. Kiran Kumar (2008) also warns that calling India simply "collectivist" forces a Western category onto a more mixed reality. The other three findings are real, but they answer other questions.

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Question 75WorldviewApply A researcher reads the Bhagavad GitaBhagavad Gitaभगवद्गीताBhagavad Gītāsay: bhuh-guh-vuhd gee-taaLiterally: song of the Blessed LordThe Bhagavad Gita is a 700-verse dialogue inside the Mahabharata. Krishna advises the warrior Arjuna, who is in crisis before a battle.Western link Often read as a counselling text: a person in crisis talks with a guide. Unlike most Western therapy, the guide also gives moral and spiritual teaching.Full entry in the glossary's teaching on acting without attachment, and concludes, without any survey, that most Indians today are non-attached. Which point in the guide does this researcher ignore?
Kuhn's claim that rival paradigms may be incommensurable, with no common measure Bhawuk's criticism that the model of the five sheaths neglects the social self Rao and Paranjpe's caution that some guna scales were checked only against other guna scales Sinha's warning that going from ancient texts to Indians today is "a big leap"

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Answer: D. Durganand Sinha warned: "From ancient texts and scriptures to contemporary attitudes and behaviour of Indians is a big leap fraught with dangers of erroneous over-generalizations." Texts are not behaviour. The guide's advice for research is to measure beliefs, not to assume them from ancient texts. Option C is a real caution, but it is about guna scales, and this researcher uses no scale at all. Pande and Naidu (1992) did measure non-attachment (anasaktianasaktiअनासक्तिanāsaktisay: uh-naa-suhk-tiLiterally: non-attachment (an + āsakti, clinging)Anasakti means non-attachment: acting and enjoying life without clinging to things or to results. Indian psychologists study it as a source of calm and happiness.Western link Close to 'non-attachment' in mindfulness research, and to acceptance in acceptance-based therapies. The difference: it is rooted in duty (dharma) and service, not only in managing emotion.Full entry in the glossary): they built a scale and tested it.

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Question 76Perspectives on realityRemember Indian tradition sorts the classical schools into astika and nastika. What is the test?
Whether the school believes in God as the creator Whether the school accepts the authority of the Vedas Whether the school accepts a lasting self behind experience Whether the school is materialist or accepts a soul

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Answer: B. The test is the Vedas, nothing else. Schools that accept their authority are astikaastikaआस्तिकāstikasay: aas-ti-kuhLiterally: one who says 'it is' (asti)Astika schools are the Indian philosophies that accept the authority of the Vedas. The usual six are Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Sankhya, Yoga, Mimamsa and Vedanta.Western link Often translated 'orthodox', but it is not the same as 'theist'. The test is acceptance of the Vedas, not belief in God.Full entry in the glossary, and schools that reject it are nastikanastikaनास्तिकnāstikasay: naas-ti-kuhLiterally: one who says 'it is not' (na asti)Nastika schools are the Indian philosophies that reject the authority of the Vedas: Buddhism, Jainism and Charvaka.Western link Often translated 'heterodox'. It is not the same as 'atheist': Buddhism and Jainism are nastika but are full religious paths.Full entry in the glossary. Option A is the most common confusion: classical Sankhya has no God, and Mimamsa thinkers "did not believe in God", yet both schools are astika. Nastika does not mean atheist or materialist either: Buddhism and Jainism are nastika, but they are not materialist.

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Question 77Perspectives on realityApply A student writes: "Advaita teaches that the world is maya, so a patient's pain is not real and needs no treatment." What is wrong with this?
Nothing is wrong: Advaita teaches that the world, pain included, is fake Advaita teaches that only pain is real, and that everything else is maya Pain is real for every practical purpose; maya does not mean that the world is fake Maya is a Buddhist idea, which Advaita rejects along with the rest of Buddhism

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Answer: C. The translation "illusion" misleads. Advaita does not say that tables, people and illnesses are fake. They belong to the everyday level, vyavaharikavyavaharikaव्यावहारिकvyāvahārikasay: vyaa-vuh-haa-ri-kuhLiterally: relating to daily dealings (vyavahāra)Vyavaharika means the everyday or 'transactional' level of reality: the world of people, objects and science, which is real for practical life.Western link Close to Kant's world of appearances (phenomena), or to the reality that science studies. The difference: Advaita claims the higher level can be known directly.Full entry in the glossary, where they are rightly treated as real. Mayamayaमायाmāyāsay: maa-yaaLiterally: measuring or creative power; magic, illusionMaya is the power that makes one reality appear as a world of many separate things. It is often translated 'illusion', which is only part of its meaning.Western link Close to the gap between appearance and reality, as in Plato's cave. The difference: the world is not unreal in daily life; it is only not the final truth.Full entry in the glossary explains how one reality, BrahmanBrahmanब्रह्मन्brahmansay: bruh-hmuhnLiterally: the vast; from bṛh-, to grow, expandBrahman is the ultimate reality in Vedanta: the one source and ground of everything. It is often described as being, consciousness and bliss.Western link Close to 'the Absolute' in Western philosophy, or to God in mystical theology. The difference: in Advaita, Brahman is not separate from the self that seeks it.Full entry in the glossary, appears as many separate things. Only at the ultimate level is Brahman alone real.

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Question 78Perspectives on realityApply Meghna (an invented example) dreams that she has failed her final exam, and wakes up in a panic. Her roommate says: "Relax. Advaita says everything is maya, so your dream and your real exam are equally unreal." Which reply fits Advaita's levels of reality?
Right: below Brahman there is only one level, and everything on it is equally unreal No: a dream is merely apparent, but the exam is real for all practical purposes No: the exam is ultimately real, so only dreams and mirages can count as maya Right: Advaita treats dreams and exams as illusions of exactly the same kind

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Answer: B. Advaita has three levels. The ultimate level, paramarthikaparamarthikaपारमार्थिकpāramārthikasay: paa-ruh-maar-thi-kuhLiterally: relating to the highest truth (parama + artha)Paramarthika means the ultimate level of reality in Advaita Vedanta. At this level only Brahman, pure consciousness, is real.Western link Close to Kant's 'thing in itself' (noumenon). Kant held that it cannot be known; Advaita holds that it can be known by direct experience.Full entry in the glossary, is BrahmanBrahmanब्रह्मन्brahmansay: bruh-hmuhnLiterally: the vast; from bṛh-, to grow, expandBrahman is the ultimate reality in Vedanta: the one source and ground of everything. It is often described as being, consciousness and bliss.Western link Close to 'the Absolute' in Western philosophy, or to God in mystical theology. The difference: in Advaita, Brahman is not separate from the self that seeks it.Full entry in the glossary alone. The everyday level, vyavaharikavyavaharikaव्यावहारिकvyāvahārikasay: vyaa-vuh-haa-ri-kuhLiterally: relating to daily dealings (vyavahāra)Vyavaharika means the everyday or 'transactional' level of reality: the world of people, objects and science, which is real for practical life.Western link Close to Kant's world of appearances (phenomena), or to the reality that science studies. The difference: Advaita claims the higher level can be known directly.Full entry in the glossary, is the world of people, objects and exams, rightly treated as real as long as nothing contradicts it. Below both sits pratibhasikapratibhasikaप्रातिभासिकprātibhāsikasay: praa-ti-bhaa-si-kuhLiterally: belonging to mere appearanceIn Advaita Vedanta, pratibhasika is the lowest level of reality: things that only seem real for a while, such as dreams and mirages.Western link Close to illusions and hallucinations in perception research. The difference: Advaita uses them as a model for how all ordinary knowledge can be corrected.Full entry in the glossary, the merely apparent, such as a mirage or a dream: Meghna's dream is cancelled as soon as she wakes. Option C is tempting, but for Advaita the exam is real only at the everyday level; at the ultimate level Brahman alone is real. Mayamayaमायाmāyāsay: maa-yaaLiterally: measuring or creative power; magic, illusionMaya is the power that makes one reality appear as a world of many separate things. It is often translated 'illusion', which is only part of its meaning.Western link Close to the gap between appearance and reality, as in Plato's cave. The difference: the world is not unreal in daily life; it is only not the final truth.Full entry in the glossary explains how one reality appears as many things. It does not make the everyday world fake.

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Question 79Perspectives on realityUnderstand Sankhya and Descartes both divide reality into two. Where does Sankhya draw the line differently?
It draws the line in the same place: mind on one side, body on the other It puts the mind on the material side; only pure consciousness stands apart It puts the senses with consciousness, and the mind with matter and the body It says that the two realities act on each other through the brain and nerves

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Answer: B. In Cartesian dualismCartesian dualismsay: kaar-tee-zhuhnLiterally: from Cartesius, the Latin name of DescartesDescartes' view that the mind (which thinks) and the body (which takes up space) are two different substances that act on each other.Indian link Sankhya's two realities, purusha and prakriti. The difference: in Sankhya the mind is part of matter, and the two realities never interact.Full entry in the glossary, the mind stands with consciousness against the body. In SankhyaSankhyaसांख्यSāṃkhyasay: saang-khyuhLiterally: enumeration, countingSankhya explains everything with two realities: pure consciousness (purusha) and nature (prakriti). In Sankhya, the mind belongs to nature, not to consciousness.Western link Close to mind-body dualism, as in Descartes. The key difference: Sankhya puts the mind on the material side; only pure consciousness is separate.Full entry in the glossary, thinking, deciding and feeling are products of nature (prakritiprakritiप्रकृतिprakṛtisay: pruh-kri-tiLiterally: what is made first; original natureIn Sankhya, prakriti is nature: the single source of all matter and all mental activity. It is made of three qualities, the gunas.Western link Close to 'nature' or 'matter-energy'. The key difference: prakriti includes the mind, so thoughts and feelings are natural processes, not consciousness itself.Full entry in the glossary), and only pure consciousness (purushapurushaपुरुषpuruṣasay: pu-ru-shuhLiterally: person, manIn Sankhya and Yoga, purusha is pure consciousness: the silent witness that is aware but does not act. It is completely separate from mind and matter.Western link Close to 'pure consciousness' or the 'witness' in consciousness studies. Unlike Descartes' mind, purusha does not think; thinking belongs to matter.Full entry in the glossary) stands apart. Option D is wrong: the two never interact, which is how Sankhya "avoids the Cartesian pitfall of mind-body interaction". Shankara attacked this very point, asking how two realities that never interact could affect each other.

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Question 80Perspectives on realityUnderstand In Nyaya-Vaisheshika, how is consciousness related to the self?
It is the very nature of the self, present even when no mind is there It is produced by matter, and there is no soul apart from the body There is no lasting self to have it, only a flow of changing processes It is a quality of the self that arises only when a mind is present

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Answer: D. For NyayaNyayaन्यायNyāyasay: nyaa-yuhLiterally: rule, method, standard; 'that into which a thing goes back' (ni + i-, to go)Nyaya is the Indian school of logic and of the theory of knowledge. It studies how we can know things correctly and how to argue well.Western link Close to logic and epistemology in Western philosophy. The differences: Nyaya also aims at liberation, and its inference always includes an example from experience.Full entry in the glossary and VaisheshikaVaisheshikaवैशेषिकVaiśeṣikasay: vai-shay-shi-kuhLiterally: concerned with particulars (viśeṣa)Vaisheshika is the school that sorts everything that exists into basic categories. It taught that physical things are made of tiny atoms.Western link Close to Greek atomism and to Aristotle's list of categories. Unlike Greek atomism, it counts selves and minds as separate substances.Full entry in the glossary, the self is many and eternal, but consciousness is not its nature. It arises only when a mind is present to show it. Option A is the view of Advaita, Sankhya-Yoga and Jainism. Option B is the Charvaka view, and option C is early Buddhism.

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Question 81Perspectives on realityRemember Early Buddhism analysed the person into five changing groups. According to Kalupahana (2008), what was this analysis meant to show?
That the true self is one with Brahman That the mind is made of food The absence of a permanent and eternal self That consciousness is a quality of the self

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Answer: C. The five groups, the skandhasskandhaस्कन्धsay: skuhn-dhuhLiterally: heap, bundle; trunkThe skandhas are the five 'heaps' that make up a person in Buddhism: body, feeling, perception, mental formations and consciousness.Western link Close to a model of the mind in parts: body, affect, perception, motivation and awareness. The difference: the list is used to show that there is no self beyond the parts.Full entry in the glossary, are material form, feeling, perception, dispositions and consciousness. None of them is a lasting "I". Kalupahana writes that the analysis "was intended to demonstrate the absence of a permanent and eternal self". This is the teaching of anattaanattaअनत्ताanattāsay: uh-nuht-taaLiterally: not-self (Sanskrit an + ātman)Anatta is the Buddhist teaching of 'no-self': there is no lasting, unchanging self behind our experiences. A person is a changing process.Western link Close to David Hume's 'bundle' view of the self, and to modern views of the self as something the brain constructs. The difference: anatta is meant to be seen in meditation, and seeing it frees from suffering.Full entry in the glossary. Option A is Advaita's view, which Buddhism rejects, and option D is the view of Nyaya-Vaisheshika, which keeps a lasting self.

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Question 82Perspectives on realityApply A classmate says: "Charvaka is simply the Indian version of modern scientific materialism." What is the best correction?
Charvaka was not materialist at all, because it held that consciousness is the basic reality Close, but Charvaka accepted only perception, while science also relies on inference Charvaka was the largest school in India, unlike materialism in the modern West Charvaka accepted four means of knowledge, as Nyaya did, so it was not materialist

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Answer: B. CharvakaCharvakaचार्वाकCārvākasay: chaar-vaa-kuhLiterally: uncertain (one guess is 'sweet-tongued', caru + vac); the other name, Lokayata, means 'directed at the world' (loka + ayata)Charvaka, also called Lokayata, is India's materialist school. It held that only matter is real and that perception is the only sure way of knowing.Western link Close to materialism and empiricism in Western philosophy. Like modern physicalism, it explains the mind as a product of the body.Full entry in the glossary held that "matter is the only reality, and sense perception is the only valid means of knowledge or proof". That makes it the closest Indian school to Western materialismmaterialismMaterialism, or physicalism, is the view that only matter and physical forces are real. On this view, the mind is a product of the brain.Indian link Charvaka (Lokayata) materialism. Sankhya partly agrees, because it treats the mind as material, but it adds purusha.Full entry in the glossary, but science depends on inference as well as perception. Option C is wrong: Rao and Paranjpe note that materialism was "adopted by only a small minority of thinkers" in India. Treat the usual picture of Charvaka with care, because its own texts are lost.

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Question 83Perspectives on realityApply A meditation teacher tells a class that turiya is simply very deep, dreamless sleep. Which reply fits Paranjpe and Rao (2008)?
The teacher is right, because neither state has any object of awareness Deep sleep leaves the self unchanged, while turiya is said to transform the ego Turiya is a special kind of dreaming, in which the mind turns away from the world Turiya is ordinary waking attention, at its very sharpest and most focused

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Answer: B. Paranjpe and Rao (2008) draw out two claims. Turiyaturiyaतुरीयturīyasay: tu-ree-yuhLiterally: the fourthTuriya is 'the fourth' state of consciousness, beyond waking, dreaming and deep sleep. It is pure awareness, present behind the other three.Western link Close to 'pure consciousness' or 'minimal phenomenal experience' in consciousness research. The difference: turiya is said to be the true self, not a brain state.Full entry in the glossary has no object, and it differs from deep sleep. You can say "I slept well", and deep sleep leaves the self unchanged, while turiya is beyond description and transforms the ego. Option A is tempting because deep sleep also has no objects, but that likeness is not the whole story. In Advaita, turiya is the awareness present in all three ordinary states.

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Question 84Perspectives on realityRemember What criticism did Bhawuk (2008) make of the model of the five sheaths?
It neglects the social self It reduces the person to the body It has no place for the intellect It was invented by Western scholars

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Answer: A. Bhawuk wrote: "In the pancha kosa model of the self, the social self is neglected." He added that only the first two layers are concrete. Option B is the opposite of the truth: like the biopsychosocial model, the five sheathspancha koshaपञ्चकोशpañcakośasay: puhn-chuh ko-shuhLiterally: five sheathsPancha kosha means the five sheaths of the person: body, breath, mind, understanding and bliss. Each is subtler than the one before.Western link Close to holistic or biopsychosocial models of the person. The difference: it adds a layer of bliss and places the true self beyond all five.Full entry in the glossary refuse to reduce a person to the body. One of the five layers, the one made of understanding, is the intellect.

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Question 85Perspectives on realityUnderstand A teacher (an invented example) explains the three gunasgunaगुणguṇasay: gu-nuhLiterally: strand, thread; qualityThe gunas are the three qualities that make up nature and mind: sattva (clarity), rajas (activity) and tamas (inertia). Their mix shapes personality.Western link Close to trait or temperament models of personality, such as the Big Five. The difference: the gunas also describe matter, and their balance can change with practice.Full entry in the glossary as "three separate parts of nature, each doing its own job alone, like three machines in one room". Which line from the Sankhya Karika shows what is wrong with this picture?
Purusha and prakriti travel together like a lame man who can see and a blind man who can walk Buddhi "is for ascertainment" The functions of the inner instrument are "simultaneous as well as successive" The gunas "function together ... for a purpose"

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Answer: D. The Sankhya Karika says the gunas never work alone: each tries to dominate the others, yet they also depend on each other and cooperate (verse 12), and they "function together ... for a purpose" (verse 13). Verse 16 adds that prakritiprakritiप्रकृतिprakṛtisay: pruh-kri-tiLiterally: what is made first; original natureIn Sankhya, prakriti is nature: the single source of all matter and all mental activity. It is made of three qualities, the gunas.Western link Close to 'nature' or 'matter-energy'. The key difference: prakriti includes the mind, so thoughts and feelings are natural processes, not consciousness itself.Full entry in the glossary "operates, in the form of the three gunas". Option A is about purusha and prakriti, not the gunas. Options B and C are true lines, but they describe the inner instrument.

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Question 86Perspectives on realityUnderstand In an exam, a student writes: "The goal of Yoga is the union of prakriti and purusha." Which correction fits SankhyaSankhyaसांख्यSāṃkhyasay: saang-khyuhLiterally: enumeration, countingSankhya explains everything with two realities: pure consciousness (purusha) and nature (prakriti). In Sankhya, the mind belongs to nature, not to consciousness.Western link Close to mind-body dualism, as in Descartes. The key difference: Sankhya puts the mind on the material side; only pure consciousness is separate.Full entry in the glossary and Yoga best?
The sentence is correct as it stands, because the word yoga itself means union The goal is to tell the two apart, so that consciousness stands alone The goal is for purusha to take control of prakriti through a long effort of will The goal is for prakriti to dissolve into purusha, as rivers flow into the sea

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Answer: B. In Sankhya and Yoga the two never interact; their relation is "association by proximity" (Rao and Paranjpe, 2016, sec. 3.4). Liberation comes from telling them apart (vivekavivekaविवेकsay: vi-vay-kuhLiterally: discrimination, telling apartViveka is discernment: the ability to tell the real from the unreal, the lasting from the passing, and the true self from what is not the self.Western link Close to 'discernment' or 'wisdom', and partly to metacognition. The difference: its main object is the difference between the self and what the self observes.Full entry in the glossary), and kaivalyakaivalyaकैवल्यsay: kai-vuhl-yuhLiterally: aloneness, isolation (kevala, alone)Kaivalya is the final goal of Sankhya and Yoga: the 'aloneness' of pure consciousness (purusha), freed from all mixing with mind and matter.Western link No close match. It loosely resembles 'pure awareness' or witness consciousness, but kaivalya is a lasting freedom, not a passing state.Full entry in the glossary means consciousness standing alone. In the narrow sense of Yoga Sutra 3.55, a fully clear mind reflects purushapurushaपुरुषpuruṣasay: pu-ru-shuhLiterally: person, manIn Sankhya and Yoga, purusha is pure consciousness: the silent witness that is aware but does not act. It is completely separate from mind and matter.Western link Close to 'pure consciousness' or the 'witness' in consciousness studies. Unlike Descartes' mind, purusha does not think; thinking belongs to matter.Full entry in the glossary without distortion, but even then the two do not merge. Option A repeats the Vedanta reading of yoga as union; the commentator Bhoja Raja said that for Patanjali yoga means separation. Option C is wrong because purusha does not act, and option D describes merging, which Sankhya denies.

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Question 87Basic conceptsUnderstand The course sets sukha and ananda beside positive emotion, the P in PERMA. Where does the match break most clearly?
Sukha always means a lasting bliss, while positive emotion is always brief Ananda is a pleasure of the senses, which the Gita calls sattvic happiness Ananda, in Vedanta, is the nature of the self, not a passing feeling Positive emotion is measured in groups, while ananda is felt only by monks

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Answer: C. In VedantaVedantaवेदान्तVedāntasay: vay-daan-tuhLiterally: end of the VedaVedanta is the family of schools based on the Upanishads. They ask how the self (atman) relates to ultimate reality (Brahman).Western link Sometimes compared with idealist philosophy, which holds that mind or spirit is basic. The key difference: Vedanta claims this can be known by direct experience, not only by argument.Full entry in the glossary, anandaanandaआनन्दānandasay: aa-nuhn-duhLiterally: bliss, joyAnanda means bliss: a deep, lasting joy. In Vedanta it is not a passing feeling but the very nature of the true self and of Brahman.Western link Loosely close to eudaimonic wellbeing or a peak experience. The difference: ananda is said to be permanent and to belong to the self, while positive emotions come and go with their causes.Full entry in the glossary is not an emotion. It is part of the nature of Brahman and the true self, uncovered when craving stops, not produced by good conditions. Ordinary sukhasukhaसुखsay: su-khuhLiterally: "good space"; ease, pleasure (su, good + kha, space)Sukha means pleasure, ease or happiness, the opposite of duhkha (pain). Indian texts separate passing pleasure from deeper, lasting happiness.Western link Close to 'positive emotion' and hedonic wellbeing in positive psychology. The difference: Indian texts treat pleasure from objects as unstable and a source of attachment, not as good in itself.Full entry in the glossary is close to positive emotion: a pleasant feeling that comes and goes. Option A is wrong because sukha is the everyday word for pleasure or ease, and option B is wrong because the Gita calls happiness from the senses meeting their objects rajasic, not sattvic. The texts also warn that pleasure from objects breeds attachment (Yoga Sutra 2.7), while PERMA treats positive emotion as good in itself.

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Question 88Basic conceptsUnderstand The yamas of the Yoga Sutra, such as non-harming and truthfulness, read like character strengths (Peterson and Seligman, 2004). Where does the match break?
The yamas are vows for everyone to keep in full; strengths vary from person to person The yamas are measured by questionnaires; strengths can be known only through meditation The yamas apply only to monks; strengths apply to people in ordinary working life The yamas were listed by Seligman; strengths were listed in the Yoga Sutra by Patanjali

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Answer: A. Peterson and Seligman's character strengthscharacter strengthsCharacter strengths are positive traits such as honesty, gratitude and hope. Peterson and Seligman (2004) listed 24 of them under six virtues.Indian link the yamas and niyamas of Yoga. The difference: the yamas are vows everyone must keep in full, not strengths a person has in different amounts.Full entry in the glossary are traits that each person has in some amount, and the advice is to use your top, or "signature", strengths. The Yoga Sutra (2.31) calls the yamasyamaयमsay: yuh-muhLiterally: restraint, controlThe yamas are the five moral restraints that begin the eight limbs of Yoga: non-harming, truthfulness, not stealing, sexual restraint and non-possessiveness.Western link Close to ethical codes, and to self-control in psychology. The difference: the yamas are the first step of a mental training, not a separate set of rules.Full entry in the glossary a "great vow": everyone keeps all of them, at all times, so you do not pick your strongest yama. Option C is wrong because the vow is meant for everyone, and option D swaps the authors. The eight limbs are also a path toward samadhisamadhiसमाधिsamādhisay: suh-maa-dhiLiterally: putting together; complete absorption (sam + ā + dhā-)Samadhi is deep absorption in meditation, where the sense of a separate meditator fades and the mind becomes one with its object. It is the eighth limb of Yoga.Western link Close to 'altered' or non-ordinary states of consciousness, and loosely to deep flow. The difference: samadhi comes from long training and is said to give true knowledge.Full entry in the glossary, not a list of strengths for ordinary life.

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Question 89Basic conceptsRemember Which school holds that the self and God are forever distinct, and so rejects reading "I am Brahman" as a literal identity?
Dvaita Vedanta, founded by Madhva Advaita Vedanta, taught by Shankara Sankhya, with its many pure consciousnesses Early Buddhism, with its teaching of no-self

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Answer: A. DvaitaDvaita Vedantaद्वैत वेदान्तDvaita Vedāntasay: dvai-tuh vay-daan-tuhLiterally: dualist Vedanta (dvaita, two-ness)Dvaita Vedanta is the dualist school of Vedanta founded by Madhva. It holds that God, souls and the world are real and forever distinct.Western link Close to classical theism in Christianity, Judaism and Islam, where the creature never becomes the Creator. Its quarrel with Advaita is like the quarrel between theism and mystical monism. The difference: Dvaita keeps the Indian frame of karma and rebirth, and liberation means release from that cycle.Full entry in the glossary, the dualist school founded by MadhvaMadhvaमध्वsay: muhdh-vuhIndian philosopher of the 13th century CE (dates usually given as 1238 to 1317), from South India, who founded Dvaita (dualist) Vedanta.Full entry in the glossary in the 13th century, holds that the soul depends on God and so is always distinct from God. It accepts the Upanishad's sentence but rejects Advaita's reading of it. AdvaitaAdvaita Vedantaअद्वैत वेदान्तAdvaita Vedāntasay: uhd-vai-tuh vay-daan-tuhLiterally: not-two; non-dualAdvaita Vedanta teaches that the true self (atman) and ultimate reality (Brahman) are one. The feeling of being a separate person comes from ignorance.Western link Often called monism. Advaita writers prefer 'non-dualism': reality is not two, but it is not described as one countable thing either.Full entry in the glossary reads "I am Brahman" (aham brahmasmiaham brahmasmiअहं ब्रह्मास्मिahaṃ brahmāsmisay: uh-huhm bruh-maas-miLiterally: I am Brahman (aham, I + brahma, Brahman + asmi, am)'Aham brahmasmi' means 'I am Brahman'. It is one of the four great sentences of the Upanishads, which Advaita Vedanta reads as the identity of the self with ultimate reality.Western link Sometimes compared with Maslow's self-transcendence. The difference: self-actualisation develops personal potential, and self-transcendence is an experience or a motive, while aham brahmasmi claims identity with ultimate reality.Full entry in the glossary) as a literal identity. Classical Sankhya has many selves but no God, and early Buddhism denies a lasting self, so neither fits.

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Question 90Basic conceptsUnderstand The course sets samatva, evenness of mind, beside resilience. Which statement best shows where the match breaks?
Resilience is a lasting trait of character, while samatva is only a passing mood Samatva means not caring about results, while resilience means caring deeply Resilience is studied only in children, while samatva is meant only for adults Samatva holds in success as well as failure; resilience is recovery after a blow

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Answer: D. ResilienceresilienceResilience is doing well, or recovering well, in spite of adversity such as loss, illness or trauma.Indian link samatva and the Gita's steady person (sthitaprajna). The difference: samatva is evenness toward good events as well as bad ones.Full entry in the glossary is defined by a setback: you bounce back after a blow. The Gita (2.38) asks for evenness toward pleasure and pain, gain and loss, victory and defeat, so success tests samatvasamatvaसमत्वsay: suh-muht-vuhLiterally: evenness, sameness (sama, even + -tva, -ness)Samatva means evenness of mind: staying the same in success and failure, pleasure and pain, praise and blame. The Bhagavad Gita (2.48) calls it yoga itself.Western link Close to equanimity as meditation researchers define it, and loosely to resilience and emotion regulation. The difference: resilience is recovery after setbacks, while samatva is evenness toward good and bad events alike, and comes from loosening the ego's stake in results.Full entry in the glossary as much as failure does. Option B is the misreading Pandey warns against: samatva is not "not caring".

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Question 91Basic conceptsUnderstand Why does the tradition refuse to count smashana vairagya as real vairagya?
Because only monks and nuns can feel it, while householders never do Because it is a mood caused by a shock, and the old desires soon return Because it is a Buddhist idea, which Patanjali's Yoga rejects outright Because it is far too strong a detachment, of a kind that the Gita forbids

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Answer: B. Dictionaries define smashana vairagyasmashana vairagyaश्मशानवैराग्यśmaśāna-vairāgyasay: shmuh-shaa-nuh vai-raag-yuhLiterally: cremation-ground dispassion (shmashana, cremation ground)Smashana vairagya is the brief detachment people feel at a funeral, when life suddenly seems empty. It soon fades, so the tradition does not trust it.Western link No close Western match. Terror management theory studies how reminders of death change people for a short time, but it finds stronger defence of one's worldview, not detachment.Full entry in the glossary as a "momentary" loss of worldly desire at the sight of a cremation ground. Sivananda says such detachment, caused by some misery, "cannot help one to attain spiritual exaltation": the mind is waiting to get its desires back. Option D is tempting, but the fault is that the mood does not last, not that it is too strong. Lasting vairagyavairagyaवैराग्यvairāgyasay: vai-raag-yuhLiterally: absence of passion; loss of colour (vi + rāga)Vairagya is dispassion: freedom from craving for worldly pleasures and results. With practice (abhyasa), it is one of the two main supports of Yoga.Western link Close to non-attachment, and to reduced craving in addiction and mindfulness research. The difference: vairagya grows from insight into what lasts, not from suppression.Full entry in the glossary grows from vivekavivekaविवेकsay: vi-vay-kuhLiterally: discrimination, telling apartViveka is discernment: the ability to tell the real from the unreal, the lasting from the passing, and the true self from what is not the self.Western link Close to 'discernment' or 'wisdom', and partly to metacognition. The difference: its main object is the difference between the self and what the self observes.Full entry in the glossary, telling the real from the unreal.

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Question 92Basic conceptsUnderstand According to Rao and Paranjpe (2016), how do Indian psychology and positive psychologypositive psychologyPositive psychology studies what makes life go well: happiness, strengths, meaning, gratitude and wellbeing, not only illness and problems.Indian link ananda (bliss), santosha (contentment) and anasakti. The difference: Indian traditions see lasting happiness as the nature of the self, not a mix of good conditions.Full entry in the glossary differ as fields of study?
Indian psychology is mainly data-driven, while positive psychology is rich in theory Both are rich in theory, but only positive psychology studies happiness and wellbeing Indian psychology is rich in theory; positive psychology is mostly data-driven They do not differ: positive psychology is Indian psychology in Western words

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Answer: C. Rao and Paranjpe write that Indian psychology "is rich in its theoretical content", while positive psychology "is overwhelmingly practice oriented and data-driven with little theoretical binding". Option A reverses the two. Each field can learn from the other: Indian psychology needs "greater empirical grounding". The authors also name deep differences about knowledge and the self, so option D is wrong too.

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Question 93Basic conceptsApply A teacher (an invented example) calls a five-minute class exercise "dhyana". Students sit quietly and notice sounds, thoughts and feelings as they come and go, without judging them. Which is the best criticism of the label?
The exercise is too short, because dhyana must last for at least an hour It is closer to mindfulness, since dhyana is one-pointed focus on a single object Dhyana means devotion to God, so the exercise must begin with a prayer Dhyana is a Buddhist word, so it cannot be used in a Hindu or secular setting

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Answer: B. The Yoga Sutra (3.2) defines dhyanadhyanaध्यानdhyānasay: dhyaa-nuhLiterally: meditation, contemplation (dhyai-, to think)Dhyana is meditation: a steady, unbroken flow of attention toward one object. It is the seventh limb of Yoga, after concentration and before absorption.Western link Close to 'meditation', and to sustained attention in cognitive psychology. The difference: dhyana is one stage in a sequence, not a general word for any calming exercise.Full entry in the glossary as a continuous flow of the same thought toward one object. It comes after pratyaharapratyaharaप्रत्याहारpratyāhārasay: pruh-tyaa-haa-ruhLiterally: drawing back (prati + ā + hṛ-, to take)Pratyahara is withdrawal of the senses: turning attention inward so that outside sights and sounds no longer pull the mind. It is the fifth limb of Yoga.Western link Close to selective attention and sensory gating, or to the inward focus of relaxation and biofeedback. The difference: it is a deliberate step toward meditation.Full entry in the glossary and dharanadharanaधारणाdhāraṇāsay: dhaa-ruh-naaLiterally: holding, fixing (dhṛ-, to hold)Dharana is concentration: holding the mind on one place or object, such as the breath or a point. It is the sixth limb of Yoga.Western link Close to focused attention, as in research on focused-attention meditation. The difference: it is a step toward absorption, not an end in itself.Full entry in the glossary, in a path that begins with ethics. Open, non-judging awareness of whatever arises is closer to mindfulnessmindfulnessMindfulness is paying attention to the present moment, on purpose and without judging. It comes from Buddhist practice and is now widely used in therapy.Indian link sati (Pali; Sanskrit smriti), and the witness stance (sakshi) of Yoga and Vedanta.Full entry in the glossary as Kabat-Zinn teaches it. Length is not the issue, so option A is wrong, and dhyana in the Yoga Sutra is concentration, not prayer, so option C is wrong.

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Question 94Basic conceptsApply A sales manager (an invented example) says: "The Gita teaches nishkama karma, so I should not care whether my team meets its targets." Which reply best fits Tilak's reading of karma yoga?
The manager is right: karma yoga asks for complete indifference to every outcome Nishkama karma applies only to religious rituals, not to ordinary work Karma yoga says the doer alone causes the result, so the manager should care more Nishkama means avoiding greed for gains, not giving up desire or effort

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Answer: D. Tilak held that "what the Gita means in using the word niskama is not to dispel desire, but to avoid greed and voracious or insatiable pursuit of gains". So nishkama karmanishkama karmaनिष्काम कर्मniṣkāma karmasay: nish-kaa-muh kuhr-muhLiterally: action without desire (niṣ + kāma + karma)Nishkama karma means doing one's duty without craving its results. The Bhagavad Gita teaches it as a way to act fully while staying calm and free.Western link Close to intrinsic motivation and to focusing on the process rather than the outcome. The difference: it is a spiritual discipline, with action offered as duty or to God.Full entry in the glossary does not ask the manager to stop caring: the manager should still plan and work well, while letting go of craving for the fruits. That is karma yogakarma yogaकर्मयोगkarmayogasay: kuhr-muh yo-guhLiterally: the yoga (discipline) of actionKarma yoga is the path of action: doing one's duty fully and well while giving up craving for its results. The Bhagavad Gita teaches it as a way to freedom.Western link Close to a focus on process rather than outcome, to intrinsic motivation and to flow, and to altruism when it serves others. The difference: flow is a passing, enjoyable state, while karma yoga is a lifelong attitude, held in dull or painful duty too, and aimed at liberation.Full entry in the glossary as Tilak read it. Option C is wrong too: the Gita (18.14) says the doer is only one of five causes of any result.

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Question 95Basic conceptsApply A client (an invented example) tells a counsellor that singing devotional songs each evening gives her a strong sense of God's presence and helps her cope with her illness. Which response best fits the idea of "subjective reality" in bhaktibhaktiभक्तिsay: bhuhk-tiLiterally: sharing, devotion (bhaj-, to share, to worship)Bhakti means loving devotion to God. Bhakti yoga, the path of devotion, is one of three main paths in the Bhagavad Gita, with action and knowledge.Western link Close to religious devotion, and to positive emotions such as love and gratitude in the psychology of religion. The difference: bhakti is a full path to liberation.Full entry in the glossary?
Respect the experience and its effects, without ruling on whether God exists Treat the experience as a symptom of illness, because no one can check it from outside Accept the experience as proof that God exists, because it is deeply real to her Ignore the experience, because psychology studies only behaviour that others can see

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Answer: A. Pandey writes that truth can be "an intimate subjective reality, deeply real to the one identified with it". Her experience is real and valid for her: it changes how she feels and acts. Psychologists of religion usually study such experience and its effects without deciding whether God exists, so the counsellor neither dismisses it nor treats it as proof.

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Question 96Basic conceptsApply A school counsellor (an invented example) runs an empathy workshop and calls it "training in ahimsa". Students practise imagining how their classmates and friends feel. Which point best shows where the label goes too far?
Ahimsa is only a Buddhist idea, so it cannot be used in a school where most pupils are Hindu Ahimsa means returning harm with kindness, so the workshop also needs a lesson on forgiveness Ahimsa is only Gandhi's political method, so it has no place in a classroom of children Ahimsa is a rule not to harm any being; empathy is a feeling, often for people close to us

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Answer: D. Ahimsaahimsaअहिंसाahiṃsāsay: uh-him-saaLiterally: not harming (a + hiṃsā, injury)Ahimsa means not harming any living being in thought, word or deed. It is the first restraint (yama) in Yoga and the central value of Jainism.Western link Close to 'non-violence' and to the 'do no harm' ethic of medicine and psychology. The difference: ahimsa extends to animals and to one's own thoughts.Full entry in the glossary means not harming any living being in thought, word or deed. It is a restraint, a "do not", that extends to all living beings, in Jainism even insects, and it is meant to hold whatever one feels. Empathy is a feeling, and research on it is mostly about humans, often people close to us. So imagining friends' feelings trains something narrower. Option A is wrong: ahimsa is the first yama of Yoga and the central value of Jainism. Option C is wrong too: Gandhi made ahimsa a political method, but the idea is far older than his politics.

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